Table 1.

Comprehensive framework of (anti)science belief formation and updating

			Core communicational bases
			Sources of scientific messages	Scientific messages themselves	Recipients of scientific messages
Psychological drivers	Cognitive pathway	Driver	Consideration of scientific sources	Match/mismatch with prior beliefs	(Lack of) analytical thinking and/or deliberation
		Proposed intervention	Scientific consensus inoculation	Transparent communication inoculation	Accuracy inoculation
	Socio-affective pathway	Driver	Trust in scientific sources	Match/mismatch with moral convictions	Emotional state during message processing
		Proposed intervention	Trust inoculation	Moralization inoculation	Positive emotions inoculation

The table shows the interplay between the communicational bases and psychological drivers of (anti)science belief formation and updating, and the theory-based psychological inoculations designed to address each entry point. Note that the boundaries between the cognitive and socio-affective pathways are permeable, and the effects of most interventions meant to address one pathway will very probably spill out to the other pathway of scientific (dis)information processing. For example, we consider the transparent communication inoculation to act on the cognitive driver ‘match/mismatch with prior beliefs’; however, its effects can spill over towards the socio-affective driver ‘trust in scientific sources’^112,113.