Table 1.

Involvement of biomaterials in treatment of various diseases

Disease/Disorders	Biomaterials/Diagnostic entity	Diagnostic modality	Clinical application	References
Orthopaedics	SPIONS	MRI	Osteoporosis	[136]
	Carbon nanotubes (99mTc labelled carbon nanotubes)	Photoacoustic imaging	Active bone metabolism	[137]
	Quantum dots	NIR	Targeted cell imaging, BONE tumours	[138]
	Gold NPs	CT, Photoacoustic imaging	Damaged bone, Osteosarcoma	[139, 140]
	Mesoporous silica NPs (Mesoporous silica NPs loaded with BH12N3O3, Mesoporous silica NPs/ gold nanorods)	CT, Photoacoustic imaging	Osteosarcoma, Bone metastasis	[141, 142]
	Hydroxyapatite (Calcium deficient hydroxyapatite scaffold labelled with NIR probe, Nano-hydroxyapatite rods/ Molybdenum oxide, Iron-doped hydroxyapatite alginate-gelatine scaffold/ Bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2))	NIR, fluorescence, MRI	Monitor bone healing, bone infection, Localized monitoring of cell infiltration in bone	[143–145]
	Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) (18F labelled NaGdF4:Yb, Er UCNPs), (Yb(III)/Ho(III) doped UCNPs) (NaYF4:Yb3 + ,Er3 + UCNPs)( NaYbF4:Gd3 + /Er3 + UCNPs)	MRI/PET, Luminescence, Fluorescence, Gemstone spectral CT	Bone, bone regeneration, cell localization, damaged bone	[28, 146–148]
	Polymer-based systems (99mTc labelled polymers, SPION coated with chitosan-PEG copolymer)	PET, MRI	Bone metastasis	[149, 150]
	Lipid-based systems (64Cu-porphysomes)	PET, fluorescence	Bone metastasis	[151]
Viral diseases	Carbon nanotube	Rapid Diagnostic Test,	Detect Dengue Virus, SARS COV-2,	[152, 153]
		Immunological	Influenza-A-Virus (H1N1)	[154]
	AuNPs	Optical	SARS-COV-2, Hepatitis B virus	[155, 156]
		Immunological	SARS COV-2, Influenza A Virus, Zika Virus	[157–159]
	Graphene	Immunological	Japanese Encephalitis Virus, Avian Influenza virus, HIV-1, Influenza A Virus (H5N1), Zika Virus	[160–164]
	Quantum dots	ELISA	Influenza-A Virus, SARS COV-2	[165, 166]
		Immunological	Hepatitis-E-virus-3	[167, 168]
	Nanofibers	Immunological	SARS COV-2	[169]
	Synthetic polymer	Immunological	Influenza A Virus (H1N1)	[170]
Cardiovascular problems	QDots (Qdot® 705 ITK™ amino PEG quantum dots) (Qdots 800 near infrared (NIR)(fluorescence)	Fluorescence/NIR	atherosclerosis	[171]
	Iron oxide NPs (AF750)	NIR, fluorescence	atherosclerosis	[172, 173]
	Iron oxide nanoparticles	MRI	Thrombotic diseases, injured cardiomyocytes	[174, 175]
	AuNPs (Cy 5 -Fluorescence)	Fluorescence	Myocardial infarction	[176]
	Copolyoxalate polymer nanoparticles (Rubrene)	Fluorescence	Ischemia– reperfusion injury	[177]
	Perfluorocarbon nanomaterials	MRI	In-stent restenosis	[178]
	Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles	MRI	Vascular regeneration in the stent position	[179]
	Gold Nanorods	Computed tomography	Ablation of inflammatory macrophages	[180]
	Single walled carbon nanotubes	NIR/fluorescence imaging	Macrophagic apoptosis	[181]
	Hybrid lipid-latex (LiLa) nanoparticles (Rosiglitazone)	MRI	Targeting proliferation macrophages in atherosclerosis	[182]
Cancer	Polymer; Polyether’s (e.g., PEG-based) (PT agent (IR-780), folic acid)	–	Diagnostics therapy in Ovarian, colon, breast, lung	[183–187]
	AuNPs (Silica core coated with Au shell)	computed tomography, photoacoustic imaging	neck and head tumour	[188]
	Chitosan nanoparticle (Ce6)	Fluorescence	A549 lung cancer	[189]
	Polymeric nanoparticle with ESION (PDT (Ce6))	MR contrast	CT26 colorectal cancer	[190]
	Iron oxide nanoparticles (Azademethylcolchicine)	MR contrast, fluorescence	MMTV-PyMT lung cancer	[191]
	Nanographene sheet functionalized with polymer	Fluorescence	Breast cancer	[192]
	Mesoporous silicon nanospheres	Ultrasound/Fluorescence	Pancreatic cancer	[193]
	Maghemite NPs coated with rhodium (II) citrate	MRI	Drug carrier in breast Cancer	[194]
	Gold nanoclusters as radio sensitizing agents	computer tomography	Prostate cancer	[195]
	Zn-doped TiO2 nanoparticles	MRI	Breast cancer	[196]
	SPIONs coupled with PSMA	MRI	Prostate cancer	[197]
	Radionuclide; Iodine (I-123, I-131), Yttrium (Y-86, Y-90), Radium (Ra-223)	SPECT and PET	Thyroid cancer, liver cancer, metastatic prostate cancer in bones,	[24]