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. 2024 Jan 22;25(2):524–543. doi: 10.1038/s44319-023-00028-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ applies to the data associated with this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data, but does not extend to the graphical or creative elements of illustrations, charts, or figures. This waiver removes legal barriers to the re-use and mining of research data. According to standard scholarly practice, it is recommended to provide appropriate citation and attribution whenever technically possible.

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(A) OD value of CCK-8 to detect proliferation activity of vascular smooth muscle cells (n = 6–7 for each group). (B, C) EdU immunofluorescence images (B) and statistics (C) of proliferative activity of vascular smooth muscle cells (n = 5 for each group). Scale bars, 200 μm. (D) OD value of CCK-8 to detect proliferation activity of vascular endothelial cells (n = 9 for each group). (E, F) EdU immunofluorescence images (E) and statistics (F) of proliferative activity of vascular endothelial cells (n = 4 for each group). Scale bars, 200 μm. (G, H) Representative image (G) and statistical graph (H) of vascular endothelial cell cycle by flow cytometry (n = 6 for each group). x axis of G means DNA content. (I) The mRNA expression of cyclin family in vascular endothelial cells (n = 6 for each group). (J, K) Representative images (J) and statistics (K) of vascular endothelial cell tube formation test (n = 6 for each group). (L, M) Representative images (L) and statistics (M) of vascular endothelial cell Scratch test (n = 6 for each group). (N) The relative d-malate uptake in C2C12, vascular smooth muscle cell and vascular endothelial cell after 24 h treatment with 100 μM d-malate (n = 3 for C2C12 and VSMC culture medium, n = 4 for PVEC culture medium). Data information: t test was used in this figure where error bars represent SEM, and *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. Source data are available online for this figure.