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. 2024 Feb 27;25:61. doi: 10.1186/s13059-024-03203-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Demographic history and dispersal of Tartary buckwheat. A Heatmap showing the similarity of five population through outgroup f₃ matrix. B Divergence times of the five populations. The range of predicted divergence time was shown. C Outgroup f₃ statistics biplot measuring genetic similarity. Diagonal line marks the f₃ statistics for G2/G5. Different groups representing accessions collected from different areas. G1, Himalayan region; G2, Sichuan; G3, Yunnan; G4, Guizhou; G5, Qinghai-Gansu; G6, Inner Mongolia-Hebei; G7, Hunan-Hubei-Jiangxi; G8, Poland; G9, Slovenia and G10, France. D Phylogenic tree of outgroup, Himalayan located group (G1), northern China located group (G5-G7) and outside China located group (G8-G10). E Pairwise fixation index (F_ST) of the mini-groups of Tartary buckwheat. F Gene flow between populations estimated using Treemix. Yellow and orange lines between populations indicate gene flow. G The possible spread of Tartary buckwheat from its origins in the Himalayas. Ten groups representing the population along the route are indicated. The average predicted divergent times are shown