Comparison 2. Appendix to data and analyses section, results from individual studies (no meta‐analysis): any parent training programme versus control.

Outcome or subgroup title	No. of studies	No. of participants	Statistical method	Effect size
1 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory)	9		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
1.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	8		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
1.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
1.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
2 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (subscale of Irritability Depression & Anxiety Scale)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
2.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
3 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (subscale of Depression Anxiety Stress Scale)	8		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
3.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
3.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
3.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
4 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (Centre for Epidem. Studies Depression Scale)	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
4.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
4.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
4.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
5 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (subscale of Parenting Stress Index)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
5.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
5.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
6 Parental outcomes: depressive symptoms (subscale of General Health Questionnaire)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
6.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
6.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
6.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
7 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (subscale of Depression Anxiety Stress Scale)	7		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
7.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	5		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
7.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
7.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
8 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (subscale of Irritability, Depression and Anxiety Scale)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
8.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
9 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (subscale of General Health Questionnaire)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
9.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
9.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
9.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
10 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (STAI State scale)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
10.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
11 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (STAI Trait scale)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
11.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
11.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	0		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
12 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (Beck Anxiety Inventory)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
12.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
13 Parental outcomes: anxiety symptoms (Brief Symptom Inventory)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
13.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
14 Parental outcomes: stress (Perceived Stress Scale)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
14.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
15 Parental outcomes: stress (Parenting Stress Index: overall score)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
15.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
15.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
15.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
16 Parental outcomes: stress (Parenting Stress Index: parent domain score)	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
16.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post interven	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
16.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
17 Parental outcomes: stress (Parenting Stress Index ‐ short form: overall score)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
17.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
17.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
18 Parental outcomes: stress (Parenting Stress Index ‐ short form: distress subscale)	1		Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
18.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
19 Parental outcomes: stress (Everyday Stress Index)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
19.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
19.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
19.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
20 Parental outcomes: stress (Ability & Confidence Rating Questionnaire)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
20.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
21 Parental outcomes: stress (Parental Stress Scale)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
21.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
21.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
22 Parental outcomes: stress (modified Uplifts & Hassles Scale: hassles scale)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
22.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
22.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
23 Parental outcomes: stress (subscale of Depression Anxiety Stress Sscale)	8		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
23.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	6		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
23.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
23.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
24 Parental outcomes: self‐esteem (Rosenberg Self‐Esteem scale)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
24.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
24.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
24.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
25 Parental outcomes: anger (subscale of Berger's Feeling Scale)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
25.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
26 Parental outcomes: anger (State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory scale)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
26.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
27 Parental outcomes: guilt (subscale of Berger's Feeling Scale)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
27.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
28 Parental outcomes: guilt (Situation Guilt Scale)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
28.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
29 Parental outcomes: confidence (Parenting Task Checklist)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
29.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
30 Parental outcomes: confidence (Parental Efficacy measure)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
30.1 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
31 Parental outcomes: confidence (Parenting Stress Index)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
31.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
31.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
32 Parental outcomes: confidence (Toddler Care Questionnaire)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
32.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
32.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
32.3 Long term follow up (more than six months post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
33 Parental outcomes: confidence (Parenting Sense of Competence Scale: total score)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
33.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
33.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
34 Parental outcomes: confidence (Problem Setting & Behaviour Checklist)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
34.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
35 Parental outcomes: confidence (Kansas Parental Satisfaction Scale: satisfaction in parental role)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
35.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
35.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
36 Parental outcomes: partner satisfaction (Dyadic Adjustment Scale)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
36.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
37 Parental outcomes: partner satisfaction (Locke‐Wallace Marital Adjustment Test)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
37.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
38 Parental outcomes: partner satisfaction (Parenting Stress Index)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
38.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	2		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
38.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
39 Parental outcomes: partner satisfaction (Relation Quality Index)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	Totals not selected
39.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	3		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)	0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
40 Father outcomes: depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Subtotals only
40.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1	18	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.53 [‐1.48, 0.42]
41 Father outcomes: depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Subtotals only
41.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1	16	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.39 [‐1.41, 0.64]
41.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1	16	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.63 [‐1.67, 0.42]
42 Father outcomes: stress (Parenting Stress Index: parent domain subscale)	4		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Subtotals only
42.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	4	123	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.43 [‐0.79, ‐0.06]
42.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1	16	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.24 [‐1.25, 0.78]
43 Father outcomes: confidence (Toddler Care Questionnaire: overall scores)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Subtotals only
43.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1	17	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	‐0.07 [‐1.06, 0.93]
43.2 Short term follow up (one to six months post intervention)	1	17	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	0.68 [‐0.35, 1.70]
44 Father outcomes: partner satisfaction (Locke‐Wallace Marital Adjustment Test)	1		Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Subtotals only
44.1 Post intervention (immediate post intervention up to four weeks post intervention)	1	16	Std. Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)	0.63 [‐0.39, 1.65]