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. 2023 Nov 14;19(1):2278235. doi: 10.1080/15476278.2023.2278235

Table 1.

Cell types for cartilage regeneration. A brief list of cell types, subtypes, sources and the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Cell Types Cell Subtypes Sources Advantages Limitations
Autologous Chondrocytes None

  • Patient cartilage53

  • No immunogenicity29

  • Easeof procurement29

  • Additional surgery53, 54

  • Costly53, 54

  • Complications regarding phenotype16, 55
Stem Cells Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)

  • Human embryos56

  • Pluripotency57

  • Unlimitedcell source58

  • Ethical concerns55, 59

  • Teratoma formation56

  • immunogenicity55, 56
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

  • Pluripotency57

  • Unlimited cell source55, 58

  • No immunogenicity57

  • In preclinical studies59

  • Teratoma formation57

  • Unsure of complete hyaline nature of cartilage29
Mesenchymal Stromal Cell (MSCs)

  • Bone marrow62 (BMSCs)

  • Adipose tissue62 (ADSCs)

  • Umbilical Cord63

  • Unlimited cell source16

  • No immunogenicity53

  • Immunomodulation for anti-inflammation63

  • Variability of cell expansion due to aging64

  • Phenotypic alterations during differentiation55, 64

  • Intraarticular injection concern of “washout”53, 62
Synthetic Cells None

  • Synthetically engineered chondrocytes65

  • iPSCs66

  • Personalized approaches via genetic manipulation67

  • No immunogenicity68

  • Unlimited cell source68

  • Limited preclinical work has been conducted69

  • Costly70

  • Ethical concerns regarding the use of lentiviruses71