Table 1.
Baseline characteristics
| Variables | Whole sample (n = 42) | Women (n = 21) | Men (n = 21) | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 34.5 ± 12.5 | 32.14 ± 12.51 | 36.86 ± 12.23 | 0.224 |
| Body mass (kg) | 73.2 ± 18.5 | 63.21 ± 12.87 | 83.11 ± 18.04 | < 0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 25.6 ± 5.21 | 24.64 ± 4.62 | 26.66 ± 5.65 | 0.214 |
| Neck circumference (cm) | 36.0 ± 4.49 | 32.65 ± 2.70 | 39.32 ± 3.26 | < 0.001 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 83.4 ± 14.6 | 76.90 ± 11.0 | 89.86 ± 15.11 | 0.003 |
| Abdominal circumference (cm) | 88.8 ± 16.2 | 86.15 ± 13.86 | 96/21 ± 17.19 | 0.043 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 102.0 ± 10.3 | 100.20 ± 9.63 | 104.39 ± 10.67 | 0.189 |
| Body fat (%) | 26.5 ± 7.97 | 31.56 ± 5.28 | 21.09 ± 6.71 | < 0.001 |
| Body fat (kg) | 19.3 ± 8.06 | 20.34 ± 6.9 | 18.29 ± 9.18 | 0.422 |
| Lean mass (kg) | 53.1 ± 13.5 | 42.91 ± 7.34 | 63.87 ± 9.48 | < 0.001 |
| Resting metabolic rate (kcal) | 1414 ± 275 | 1282 ± 233.26 | 1596 ± 341.79 | 0.001 |
| < 30 years | 1441 ± 386 | 1259 ± 276 | 1704 ± 382 | 0.185* |
| ≥ 30 years | 1446 ± 264 | 1210 ± 129 | 1516 ± 300 | |
| NREE (kcal/day) | 1516 ± 415 | 1378 ± 460 | 1648 ± 326 | 0.036 |
| TDEE (kcal/day) | 3177 ± 133 | 3045 ± 721 | 3345 ± 734 | 0.001 |
| Energy balance (kcal/day) | − 997 ± 656 | − 778 ± 524 | − 1205 ± 711 | 0.004 |
| Dietary practices score, energy, macronutrient intake, eating window, and late-night dinner eating | ||||
| Dietary practices score | 37.2 ± 9.28 | 38.76 ± 10.86 | 35.71 ± 7.32 | 0.293 |
| 24-h recall (kcal per day) | 2178 ± 390 | 2090 ± 349 | 2266 ± 417 | 0.147 |
| Thermic effect of food (kcal per day) | 218 ± 39 | 209 ± 34.9 | 227 ± 41.7 | 0.147 |
| Carbohydrate (g per day) | 269 ± 93.9 | 265.9 ± 77.89 | 282.1 ± 97.04 | 0.555 |
| Protein (g per day) | 86.5 ± 26.6 | 78.8 ± 21.69 | 92.6 ± 30.91 | 0.101 |
| Lipids (g per day) | 84.3 ± 24.9 | 82.0 ± 28.11 | 86.2 ± 21.68 | 0.587 |
| Saturated Fatty Acids (g per day) | 30.8 ± 14.6 | 27.9 ± 10.66 | 34.2 ± 17.16 | 0.159 |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids (g per day) | 23.9 ± 6.08 | 22.6 ± 5.87 | 24.8 ± 6.33 | 0.251 |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g per day) | 17.7 ± 7.20 | 16.9 ± 7.88 | 18.7 ± 6.46 | 0.429 |
| Cholesterol (mg per day) | 338 ± 196 | 323.9 ± 154.35 | 370.4 ± 217.48 | 0.437 |
| Eating window (> 12 h) | 26 (61.9) | 12 (57.1) | 14 (66.7) | 0.525 |
| Late-night dinner eating > 8:30 pm | 17 (41.5) | 10 (47.6) | 7 (35) | 0.412 |
| Physical activity level | ||||
| Sedentary | 23 (54.8) | 14 (66.7) | 9 (42.9) | 0.204 |
| Type A irregularly active | 8 (19) | 2 (9.5) | 6 (28.6) | |
| Type B irregularly active | 11 (26.2) | 5 (23.8) | 6 (28.6) | |
| Sleep- and circadian-related parameters | ||||
| PSQI score | 6.79 ± 3.01 | 6.10 ± 2.70 | 7.48 ± 3.20 | 0.139 |
| Poor sleep quality (> 5 PSQI score) | 26 (62) | 11 (52.4) | 15 ± 71.4) | 0.204 |
| Sleep duration from PSQI (h) | 6.64 ± 1.23 | 7.01 ± 1.33 | 6.27 ± 1.02 | 0.050 |
| Mean week sleep duration (h) | 6.61 ± 0.98 | 6.88 ± 1.11 | 6.32 ± 0.75 | 0.068 |
| Mean weekend sleep duration (h) | 7.79 ± 1.30 | 7.78 ± 1.47 | 7.79 ± 1.14 | 0.971 |
| Sleep efficiency (%) | 88.4 ± 10.6 | 89.76 ± 8.70 | 87.05 ± 12.21 | 0.412 |
| Epworth score | 9.62 ± 5.07 | 10.14 ± 5.42 | 9.10 ± 4.75 | 0.509 |
| SJL (> 1 h) | 21 (51.2) | 10 (47.6) | 11 (55) | 0.636 |
| SJLsc (> 1 h) | 12 (29.3) | 7 (33.3) | 5 (25) | 0.558 |
| MEQ score | 53 ± 10.9 | 56.38 ± 9.89 | 49.57 ± 10.97 | 0.041 |
| Matutine | 17 (40.5) | 12 (57.1) | 5 (23.9) | 0.064 |
| Indifferent | 20 (47.6) | 8 (38.1) | 12 (57.1) | |
| Vespertine | 5 (11.9) | 1 (4.8) | 4 (19) | |
| Smoking habits, medications, income, and educational status | ||||
| Smoking | 2 (4) | 0 (0) | 2 (9.5) | 0.147 |
| Medications | 17 (21) | 10 (47.6) | 7 (33.3) | 0.346 |
| Up to 2 minimum wages per month | 2 (4) | 2 (9.5) | 0 (0) | 0.104 |
| Between 2 and 4 minimum wages per month | 11 (26) | 6 (28.6) | 5 (23.8) | |
| Between 4 and 10 minimum wages per month | 19 (45) | 11 (52.4) | 8 (38.1) | |
| Above 10 minimum wages per month | 10 (23) | 2 (9.5) | 8 (38.1) | |
| Until high school | 21 (50) | 11 (52.4) | 10 (47.6) | 0.758 |
| College or higher | 21 (50) | 10 (47.6) | 11 (52.4) | |
Continuous data are described in mean ± standard deviation, while frequencies in absolute (percentage) values. T student independent test was performed; Bold = p value ≤ 0.05. *p value for interaction between age, sex, and 30 year-old cutoff (ANCOVA analysis was performed)
n sample size, kg kilograms, mg milligrams, cm centimeters, m2 squared meters, kcal kilocalories, h hours, BMI body mass index, PSQI Pittsburg sleep quality index, MEQ Morningness-Eveningness questionnaire, NREE non-resting energy expenditure, TDEE total daily energy expenditure, > greater than