Table 2.

Identified mechanisms underpinning the benefits of pets for anxiety and depression.

Mechanisms underpinning benefits of pets for mental health
Pet behavior: proximity seeking, eye contact, “watching” or “checking” behavior, attentiveness, and responsiveness, attuned to emotions, physically affectionate, sleeping in proximity, sounds (e.g., purring)	Human–pet behavior: physical touch/petting, observing pet, taking photos, looking at photos of pet, talking to/confiding in pet, including pets in social interactions and activities, talking about pet to others, eating at set mealtimes with pet, shared activities, and quality time together	Pet perceived as consistent, readily available, as enjoying time spent with owner, perceived learning from them
Increased mindfulness, focus on the present moment	Increased sense of safety, protection, and reassurance, reduction/prevention of harmful thoughts	Company and comfort without judgement, expectations, or pressure. No opinions or negative feelings towards owner
Distraction, modify attention away from worries, rumination, and paranoid thoughts	Identification with pets and sense of mutual support	Increased joy and pleasure, comic relief, and sense of fun
Increased relaxation and sense of calm	Social catalyst/facilitating social interactions	Feeling valued and appreciated
Feeling loved or “chosen”	Help with disengaging from social interactions	Increased sense of purpose. Feeling needed and/or relied on for care
Better emotion regulation	Increased energy and encouragement to engage in healthy activities	Increased company/companionship
Increased physical exercise and time spent in nature	Increased motivation/will to live	Reminder to “keep tabs” on own mental health and to engage in self-care
Increased sense of responsibility and caregiving role	Increased sense of routine and structure	Increased self-control, sense of independence
Feeling productive, a sense of achievement and self-pride	Increased resilience and ability to cope with stress, adversity, and severe trauma, and stress relief	Sense of emotional support
Motivation to seek mental health treatment and to avoid re-admission to hospital	Increased optimism, hope, and positive outlook	Motivation to continue/pursue work and/or education