TABLE 1.
Summary of peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptors (PPAR) combinational therapies.
| Pathway | Subtypes | PPARs agonists | Combination | Cancer cells/function | Citation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway | PPAR‐α | Clofibrate | Breast cancer cell | [37] | |
| Clofibric acid | Pioglitazone | Ovarian cancer | [35] | ||
| PPAR‐γ | Balaglitazone | Celecoxib | Hepatocellular carcinoma expansion | [109, 110] | |
| Rosiglitazone | mTOR inhibitor rapamycin | Non‐small cell lung carcinoma cell | [111] | ||
| N‐(9‐fluorenyl‐methyloxycarbonyl)‐l‐leucine (F‐L‐Leu) | Celecoxib | N1‐S1 cells, breast cancer, Huh7 cells | [110, 112] | ||
| Pioglitazone | Arsenic trioxide | Leukaemia | [113] | ||
| Pioglitazone | Trofosfamide, rofecoxib (a COX‐2 inhibitor) | Chemo‐refractory melanoma, soft tissue sarcoma, advanced vascular malignancies | [114, 115] | ||
| STAT5 | PPAR‐γ | Glitazones | Imatinib mesylate | Chronic myeloid Leukaemia | [116, 117, 118, 119, 120] |
| Retinoid X receptor/retinoic acid receptor | PPAR‐γ | Ciglitazone, pioglitazone | Rexinoid 6‐OH‐11‐O‐hydroxyphenantrene (IIF) | Colon cancer cell lines | [121] |
| Pioglitazone | IIF | Glioma cell lines, a murine glioma in vivo model | [122] | ||
| Rosiglitazone, 15‐deoxy‐Delta 12,14‐prostaglandin J, triterpenoid 2‐cyano‐3,12‐dioxooleana‐1,9‐dien‐28‐oic acid | RXR agonist: LG100268 | U937 and HL‐60; and lymphoid cells, including Su‐DHL, Sup‐M2, Ramos, Raji, Hodgkin's cell lines | [123] | ||
| 2‐cyano‐3,12‐dioxooleana‐1,9‐dien‐28‐oic acid | Bcl‐2 inhibitor HA14‐1 | Bcl‐2‐overexpressing chronic lymphocytic leukaemia cells | [123] | ||
| Insulin‐like growth factor | PPAR‐α | Fenofibrate | Medulloblastoma cell line | [124] | |
| Fenofibrate | Glioma cells | [125] | |||
| Immunotherapy | PPAR‐α | Fenofibrate | PD‐1 blocker | Reprogramming the metabolism of effector T cells | [102] |
| PPAR‐γ | Bezafibrate | Increase fatty acid oxidation and mitochondrial respiratory capacity in CD8+ T lymphocytes | [126] | ||
| Ciglitazone | Lovastatin, phenylbutyrate | Trigger TNF‐α‐related apoptosis | [127] | ||
| Chemotherapy | PPAR‐γ | Pioglitazone | Cisplatinum | Orthotopic xenograft (PDOX) models of osteosarcoma | [128] |
| Efatutazone | Paclitaxel | Advanced anaplastic thyroid carcinoma | [100, 129] | ||
| Troglitazone | Tamoxifen | MCF‐7 cells | [130] | ||
| Troglitazone | Lovastatin | DBTRG 05 MG (glioblastoma) and CL1‐0 (lung) | [131] | ||
| Troglitazone | Aspirin | Lung cancer CL1‐0 and A549 cells | [132] | ||
| Troglitazone | Radiation | Cervix cancer cells | [133] | ||
| Troglitazone | Lovastatin | Human anaplastic thyroid cancer cell Line. Mouse xenograft model | [134] | ||
| Troglitazone | TNF‐related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) | Breast cancer cell | [135] | ||
| Troglitazone | Heregulin | Breast cancer cell | [136] | ||
| Ciglitazone | TRAIL | Ca Ski cells containing HPV type 16 | [137] | ||
| Pioglitazone | Prevent radiation‐induced cognitive decline (RICD) | [138] |