Table 2. Risk of Incident Chronic Kidney Disease by Category of Beverage Intake.
| Incident chronic kidney diseasea,b | 0 serving/d, HR (95% CI) | P value | >0-1 serving/d, HR (95% CI) | P value | >1 serving/d, HR (95% CI) | P value | P value for trend |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sugar sweetened beverages | |||||||
| Person-years | 905 494 | NA | 337 862 | NA | 87 613 | NA | NA |
| Cases/events | 2991/86 403 | NA | 1144/33 028 | NA | 324/8399 | NA | NA |
| Model 1 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.09 (1.02-1.17) | .01 | 1.42 (1.26-1.59) | <.001 | <.001 |
| Model 2 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.08 (1.01-1.16) | .03 | 1.28 (1.14-1.43) | <.001 | <.001 |
| Model 3 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.04 (0.97-1.12) | .26 | 1.19 (1.05-1.34) | .01 | .006 |
| Artificially sweetened beverages | |||||||
| Person-years | 1 061 369 | NA | 198 621 | NA | 70 979 | NA | |
| Cases/events | 3470/101 535 | NA | 695/19 446 | NA | 294/6849 | NA | |
| Model 1 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.27 (1.17-1.37) | <.001 | 1.70 (1.51-1.92) | <.001 | <.001 |
| Model 2 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.10 (1.02-1.20) | .02 | 1.24 (1.10-1.40) | .001 | <.001 |
| Model 3 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1.10 (1.01-1.20) | .02 | 1.26 (1.12-1.43) | <.001 | <.001 |
| Natural juices | |||||||
| Person-years | 645 516 | NA | 589 535 | NA | 95 917 | NA | NA |
| Cases/events | 2277/61 172 | 1871/57 384 | NA | 311/9274 | NA | NA | |
| Model 1 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 0.85 (0.80-0.91) | .001 | 0.92 (0.81-1.03) | .15 | <.001 |
| Model 2 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 0.92 (0.87–0.98) | .01 | 0.98 (0.87-1.10) | .70 | .07 |
| Model 3 | 1 [Reference] | NA | 0.93 (0.87-0.99) | .03 | 0.99 (0.87-1.11) | .90 | .10 |
Abbreviations: HR, hazard ratio; NA, not applicable.
Model 1 adjusted for age, sex. Model 2 adjusted as for model 1 plus ethnic background, Townsend Deprivation Index, alcohol consumption status, smoking status, body mass index, physical activity, comorbidity (hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease), and the use of medication (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor and statins). Model 3 adjusted as for model 2 plus dietary intake (total energy, total sugar, and healthy diet score) and laboratory measurements (estimated glomerular filtration rate, urine albumin to creatinine ratio, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high-sensitive C-reactive protein).
Healthy diet score was calculated based on 7 dietary factors according to recommendations for dietary priorities on cardiometabolic health and ranged from 0 to 7. Each favorable dietary factor contributed 1 point to the overall score: total vegetables 4 or more servings per day; total fruit 4 or more servings per day; total fish 2 or more servings per week; processed meat 1 or fewer servings per week; red meat 1.5 or fewer servings per week; whole grains 3 or more servings per day; refined grains 1.5 or fewer servings per day.