Table 3. Associations between individual pesticide use and lung cancer.
| Pesticide | Case | Control | OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR
(95% CI) * |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | n | % | |||
| Total | 233 | 100.0 | 447 | 100.0 | ||
| Herbicides | ||||||
| Glyphosate (N = 281) | ||||||
| Yes | 105 | 45.1 | 176 | 39.4 | 1.26 (0.91–1.74) | 1.29 (0.89–1.88) |
| No | 128 | 54.9 | 271 | 60.6 | ||
| Number of days using
glyphosate |
||||||
| Q4 (>1,008) | 44 | 18.9 | 26 | 5.8 | 3.58(2.11-6.07) | 3.65(2.05-6.50) ** |
| Q3 (401–828) | 36 | 15.5 | 33 | 7.4 | 2.30(1.37-3.87) | 2.52(1.43-4.43) ** |
| Q2 (161–480) | 18 | 7.7 | 37 | 8.3 | 1.02(0.56-1.87) | 1.10(0.58-2.09) |
| Q1 (≤160) | 7 | 3.0 | 80 | 17.9 | 0.18(0.08-0.41) | 0.20(0.09-0.46) |
| Non-exposed | 128 | 54.9 | 271 | 60.6 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| Paraquat (N = 239) | ||||||
| Yes | 89 | 38.2 | 150 | 33.6 | 1.22 (0.88–1.70) | 1.21 (0.85–1.73) |
| No | 144 | 61.8 | 297 | 66.4 | ||
| Number of days using
paraquat |
||||||
| Q4 (>828) | 30 | 12.9 | 29 | 6.5 | 2.11(1.22-3.66) | 2.04(1.14-3.67) ** |
| Q3 (401–828) | 29 | 12.4 | 32 | 7.2 | 1.85(1.08-3.18) | 1.80(1.02-3.20) ** |
| Q2 (145–400) | 21 | 9.1 | 35 | 7.8 | 1.19(0.67-2.12) | 1.26(0.69-2.28) |
| Q1 (≤144) | 9 | 3.8 | 54 | 12.1 | 0.33(0.16-0.69) | 0.35(0.17-0.75) |
| Non-exposed | 144 | 61.8 | 297 | 66.4 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (N = 117) | ||||||
| Yes | 47 | 20.2 | 70 | 15.7 | 1.36 (0.90–2.04) | 1.42 (0.93–2.18) |
| No | 186 | 79.8 | 377 | 84.3 | ||
| Number of days using 2,4-
Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid |
||||||
| Q4 (>480) | 9 | 3.9 | 20 | 4.5 | 0.81(0.40-2.04) | 0.88(0.38-2.01) |
| Q3 (161–480) | 11 | 4.7 | 12 | 2.7 | 1.55(0.82-3.82) | 1.58(0.79-3.78) |
| Q2 (91–160) | 10 | 4.3 | 14 | 3.1 | 1.17(0.67-2.59) | 1.19(0.68-2.66) |
| Q1 (≤90) | 17 | 7.3 | 24 | 5.4 | 0.59(0.25-1.39) | 0.65(0.27-1.57) |
| Non-exposed | 186 | 79.8 | 377 | 84.3 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.095 | 0.098 | ||||
| Butachlor (N = 38) | ||||||
| Yes | 14 | 6.0 | 24 | 5.4 | 1.12 (0.57–2.22) | 0.88 (0.42–1.83) |
| No | 219 | 94.0 | 423 | 94.6 | ||
| Number of days using
butachlor |
||||||
| Q4 (>220) | 6 | 2.6 | 4 | 1.0 | 2.89(0.80-7.37) | 2.02(0.53-7.67) |
| Q3 (101–220) | 3 | 1.3 | 5 | 1.1 | 1.15(0.27-4.89) | 0.95(0.21-4.28) |
| Q2 (51–100) | 4 | 1.7 | 5 | 1.1 | 1.54(0.41-5.81) | 1.47(0.37-5.82) |
| Q1 (≤50) | 1 | 0.4 | 10 | 2.2 | 0.19(0.02-1.51) | 0.19(0.02-1.52) |
| Non-exposed | 219 | 94.0 | 423 | 94.6 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.134 | 0.154 | ||||
| Propanil (N = 32) | ||||||
| Yes | 11 | 4.7 | 21 | 4.7 | 1.00 (0.47–2.12) | 1.06 (0.47–2.41) |
| No | 222 | 95.3 | 426 | 95.3 | ||
| Number of days using
propanil |
||||||
| T3 (>320) | 6 | 2.6 | 10 | 2.2 | 1.21(0.80-6.30) | 1.32(0.61-6.82) |
| T2 (91–320) | 3 | 1.3 | 5 | 1.1 | 1.15(0.27-4.86) | 1.29(0.29-5.60) |
| T1 (≤90) | 2 | 0.8 | 6 | 1.4 | 0.63(0.12-3.19) | 0.68(0.13-3.48) |
| Non-exposed | 222 | 95.3 | 426 | 95.3 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.379 | 0.266 | ||||
| Alachlor (N= 42) | ||||||
| Yes | 14 | 6.0 | 28 | 6.3 | 0.95 (0.49–1.85) | 0.91 (0.45–1.85) |
| No | 219 | 94.0 | 419 | 93.7 | ||
| Number of days using
alachlor |
||||||
| Q4 (>885) | 6 | 2.6 | 5 | 1.1 | 2.29(0.69-7.60) | 1.87(0.55-6.35) |
| Q3 (341-885) | 5 | 2.2 | 5 | 1.1 | 1.91(0.54-6.67) | 1.85(0.51-6.67) |
| Q2 (99-340) | 2 | 0.8 | 8 | 1.8 | 0.47(0.10-2.27) | 0.52(0.11-2.52) |
| Q1 (≤98) | 1 | 0.4 | 10 | 2.3 | 0.19(0.02-1.50) | 0.17(0.02-1.39) |
| Non-exposed | 219 | 94.0 | 419 | 93.7 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.101 | 0.099 | ||||
| Insecticides | ||||||
| Organochlorine insecticides | ||||||
| Endosulfan (N = 79) | ||||||
| Yes | 35 | 15.0 | 44 | 9.8 | 1.61 (1.00–2.60) | 1.60 (0.97–2.63) |
| No | 198 | 85.0 | 403 | 90.2 | ||
| Number of days using
endosulfan |
||||||
| Q4 (>850) | 10 | 4.3 | 10 | 2.2 | 2.03(0.83-4.97) | 2.01(0.79-5.08) |
| Q3 (361–850) | 8 | 3.4 | 10 | 2.2 | 1.62(0.63-4.18) | 1.38(0.51-3.67) |
| Q2 (130–360) | 8 | 3.4 | 13 | 2.9 | 1.25(0.51-3.07) | 1.31(0.52-3.30) |
| Q1 (≤129) | 9 | 3.9 | 11 | 2.5 | 1.16(0.67-4.08) | 1.18(0.71-4.48) |
| Non-exposed | 198 | 85.0 | 403 | 90.2 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.346 | 0.204 | ||||
| Dieldrin (N = 44) | ||||||
| Yes | 24 | 10.3 | 20 | 4.5 | 2.45 (1.32–4.53) | 2.56 (1.36–4.81) ** |
| No | 209 | 89.7 | 427 | 95.5 | ||
| Number of days using
dieldrin |
||||||
| T3 (>720) | 9 | 3.9 | 6 | 1.3 | 3.06(1.07-8.72) | 3.15(1.08-9.18) ** |
| T2 (321–720) | 9 | 3.9 | 5 | 1.1 | 3.04(1.21-7.11) | 3.11(1.33-8.68) ** |
| T1 (≤320) | 6 | 2.5 | 9 | 2.1 | 1.36(0.47-3.87) | 1.36(0.47-3.95) |
| Non-exposed | 209 | 89.7 | 427 | 95.5 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.017 | 0.022 | ||||
| DDT (N = 50) | ||||||
| Yes | 13 | 5.6 | 37 | 8.3 | 0.65 (0.34–1.25) | 0.67 (0.34–1.31) |
| No | 220 | 94.4 | 410 | 91.7 | ||
| Number of days using DDT | ||||||
| T3 (>250) | 7 | 3.0 | 10 | 2.3 | 1.30(0.48-3.47) | 1.28(0.47-.50) |
| T2 (121–250) | 3 | 1.3 | 12 | 2.7 | 0.46(0.13-1.66) | 0.45(0.12-1.66) |
| T1 (≤120) | 3 | 1.3 | 15 | 3.3 | 0.37(0.10-1.30) | 0.41(0.11-1.46) |
| Non-exposed | 220 | 94.4 | 410 | 91.7 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.191 | 0.151 | ||||
| Organophosphate insecticides | ||||||
| Chlorpyrifos (N = 70) | ||||||
| Yes | 40 | 17.2 | 30 | 6.7 | 2.88 (1.74–4.76) | 3.29 (1.93–5.61) ** |
| No | 193 | 82.8 | 417 | 93.3 | ||
| Number of days using
chlorpyrifos |
||||||
| T3(>720) | 15 | 6.4 | 10 | 2.2 | 3.42(1.31-6.93) | 3.42(1.47-7.96) ** |
| T2 (397–720) | 18 | 7.8 | 12 | 2.7 | 3.02(1.62-7.18) | 3.12(1.89-8.97) ** |
| T1 (≤396) | 7 | 3.0 | 8 | 1.8 | 1.89(0.67-5.28) | 1.89(0.63-5.61) |
| Non-exposed | 193 | 82.8 | 417 | 93.3 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| Folidol/parathion (N = 104) | ||||||
| Yes | 40 | 17.2 | 64 | 14.3 | 1.24 (0.80–1.90) | 1.25 (0.78–1.99) |
| No | 193 | 82.8 | 383 | 85.7 | ||
| Number of days using
folidol/parathion |
||||||
| Q4 (>720) | 12 | 5.1 | 11 | 2.4 | 2.16(0.93-4.99) | 2.10(0.88-5.02) |
| Q3 (401–1,080) | 9 | 3.9 | 7 | 1.6 | 2.05(0.93-4.15) | 2.04(0.88-4.71) |
| Q2 (140–400) | 7 | 3.0 | 21 | 4.7 | 0.66(0.27-1.58) | 0.69(0.28-1.71) |
| Q1 (≤139) | 12 | 5.2 | 25 | 5.6 | 0.95(0.46-1.93) | 0.95(0.85-2.01) |
| Non-exposed | 193 | 82.8 | 383 | 85.7 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.105 | 0.105 | ||||
| Mevinphos (N = 38) | ||||||
| Yes | 16 | 6.9 | 22 | 4.9 | 1.42 (0.73–2.76) | 0.89 (0.22–3.65) |
| No | 217 | 93.1 | 425 | 95.1 | ||
| Number of days using
mevinphos |
||||||
| T3 (>840) | 9 | 3.9 | 8 | 1.8 | 2.44(0.95-6.29) | 2.05(0.77-5.44) |
| T2 (253–840) | 5 | 2.1 | 2 | 0.4 | 2.89(0.91-5.44) | 2.53(0.84-5.53) |
| T1 (≤252) | 2 | 0.9 | 12 | 2.7 | 0.16(0.22-1.26) | 0.16(0.22-1.29) |
| Non-exposed | 217 | 93.1 | 425 | 95.1 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.065 | 0.063 | ||||
| Carbamate insecticides | ||||||
| Carbaryl/Savin (N = 48) | ||||||
| Yes | 14 | 6.0 | 34 | 7.6 | 0.77 (0.40–1.47) | 0.89 (0.41–1.55) |
| No | 219 | 94.0 | 413 | 92.4 | ||
| Number of days using
carbaryl/savin |
||||||
| T3 (>1,050) | 7 | 3.0 | 8 | 2.2 | 1.65(0.59-4.61) | 1.71(0.59-4.94) |
| T2 (321–1,050) | 5 | 2.1 | 11 | 2.6 | 0.85(0.29-2.49) | 0.87(0.29-2.63) |
| T1 (≤320) | 2 | 0.9 | 15 | 1.8 | 0.25(0.15-1.10) | 0.25(0.59-4.94) |
| Non-exposed | 219 | 94.0 | 413 | 92.4 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.130 | 0.107 | ||||
| Carbofuran (N = 85) | ||||||
| Yes | 43 | 18.5 | 42 | 9.4 | 2.18 (1.37–3.45) | 2.10 (1.28–3.42) ** |
| No | 190 | 81.5 | 405 | 90.6 | ||
| Number of days using
carbofuran |
||||||
| Q4 (>1,200) | 11 | 4.7 | 6 | 1.4 | 4.68(1.60-13.68) | 4.57(1.53-13.57) ** |
| Q3 (401–1,200) | 18 | 7.7 | 5 | 1.1 | 4.52(1.15-13.06) | 4.36(1.99-13.53) ** |
| Q2 (101–400) | 8 | 3.5 | 14 | 3.1 | 1.21(0.50-2.95) | 1.11(0.44-2.82) |
| Q1 (≤100) | 6 | 2.6 | 17 | 3.8 | 0.47(0.15-1.41) | 0.44(0.14-1.35) |
| Non-exposed | 190 | 81.5 | 405 | 90.6 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| Pyrethoid insecticides | ||||||
| Abamectin (N = 134) | ||||||
| Yes | 44 | 18.9 | 90 | 20.1 | 0.92 (0.61–1.37) | 0.82 (0.53–1.27) |
| No | 189 | 81.1 | 357 | 79.9 | ||
| Number of days using
abamectin |
||||||
| Q4 (>540) | 12 | 5.2 | 21 | 4.7 | 1.07(0.51-2.24) | 0.89(0.41-1.91) |
| Q3 (361–540) | 8 | 3.4 | 16 | 3.6 | 0.94(0.39-2.24) | 0.83(.34-2.02) |
| Q2 (124–360) | 14 | 6.0 | 29 | 6.5 | 0.91(0.47-1.76) | 0.79(0.39-1.58) |
| Q1 (≤123) | 10 | 4.3 | 24 | 5.3 | 0.78(0.36-1.68) | 0.79(0.36-1.74) |
| Non-exposed | 189 | 81.1 | 357 | 79.9 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.971 | 0.391 | ||||
| Fungicides | ||||||
| Armure/Propiconazole (N = 80) | ||||||
| Yes | 29 | 12.4 | 51 | 11.4 | 1.10 (0.67–1.79) | 1.02 (0.61–1.72) |
| No | 204 | 87.6 | 396 | 88.6 | ||
| Number of days using
Armure/propiconazole |
||||||
| Q4 (>480) | 10 | 4.3 | 9 | 2.0 | 2.15(0.86-5.39) | 1.95(0.75-5.05) |
| Q3 (145–480) | 8 | 3.4 | 12 | 2.7 | 1.29(0.52-3.12) | 1.01(0.39-2.60) |
| Q2 (81–144) | 6 | 2.6 | 13 | 2.9 | 0.89(0.33-2.39) | 1.02(0.36-2.86) |
| Q1 (≤80) | 5 | 2.1 | 17 | 3.8 | 0.57(0.20-1.56) | 0.53(0.18-1.50) |
| Non-exposed | 204 | 87.5 | 396 | 88.6 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.349 | 0.218 | ||||
| Methyl aldehyde (N = 43) | ||||||
| Yes | 15 | 6.4 | 28 | 6.3 | 1.02 (0.53–1.96) | 1.03 (0.52–2.05) |
| No | 218 | 93.6 | 419 | 93.7 | ||
| Number of days using
methyl aldehyde |
||||||
| T3 (>528) | 4 | 1.7 | 16 | 3.6 | 0.48(0.15-1.45) | 0.49(0.16-1.53) |
| T2 (351–528) | 4 | 1.7 | 4 | 0.9 | 1.92(0.47-4.75) | 1.77(0.42-4.44) |
| T1 (≤350) | 7 | 3.0 | 8 | 1.8 | 1.68(0.36-4.69) | 1.72(0.59-4.98) |
| Non-exposed | 218 | 93.6 | 419 | 93.7 | Reference | Reference |
| P for trend*** | 0.284 | 0.176 | ||||
*Logistic regression adjusted for gender, age (≤ 54, 55–64, 65–74, and ≥ 75), cigarette smoking (never smoked, smoked <109,500, smoked ≥ 109,500), occupation (farmer and non-farmer), cooking fumes exposure (yes, no) and exposure to air pollution (working in factories with air pollution) (yes, no).
**Statistically significant (p < 0.05).