Table 2.
Dietary intake of chronotypes.
| Total (N = 110) |
Morning chronotype (N = 56) |
Evening chronotype (N = 54) |
P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nutrient intake1 | ||||
| Total protein (g/day) | 74.8 ± 12.1 | 72.1 ± 9.8 | 77.4 ± 13.7 | 0.034 |
| % E total protein | 15.3 ± 2.6 | 14.8 ± 2.0 | 15.8 ± 2.9 | 0.055 |
| Animal protein (g/day) | 44.8 ± 14.8 | 40.2 ± 12.5 | 49.3 ± 15.5 | 0.001 |
| Plant protein (g/day) | 30.0 ± 7.6 | 31.9 ± 8.8 | 28.2 ± 5.8 | 0.016 |
| Total fat (g/day) | 85.5 ± 13.0 | 81.2 ± 11.9 | 89.7 ± 12.7 | 0.001 |
| % E total fat | 39.1 ± 5.9 | 37.2 ± 5.4 | 41.1 ± 5.8 | 0.001 |
| Animal fat (g/day) | 53.8 ± 13.9 | 49.9 ± 13.5 | 57.6 ± 13.4 | 0.005 |
| Plant fat (g/day) | 31.3 ± 10.4 | 30.8 ± 10.2 | 31.7 ± 10.6 | 0.658 |
| Carbohydrate (g/day) | 220.6 ± 35.5 | 232.7 ± 31.6 | 208.8 ± 35.5 | 0.001 |
| % E carbohydrate | 45.1 ± 7.2 | 47.7 ± 6.4 | 42.7 ± 7.2 | < 0.001 |
| Sugar (g/day) | 80.3 ± 25.3 | 82.4 ± 23.8 | 78.3 ± 26.7 | 0.411 |
| Starch (g/day) | 116.3 ± 34.4 | 125.1 ± 30.8 | 107.7 ± 35.9 | 0.010 |
| Fiber (g/day) | 18.4 ± 5.7 | 19.9 ± 6.4 | 16.9 ± 4.5 | 0.009 |
| Total energy (kcal/day) | 1968.0 ± 464.1 | 1931.9 ± 444.3 | 2003.4 ± 484.5 | 0.442 |
| Food group intake (g/day) | ||||
| Total dairy | 187.6 ± 135.3 | 171.3 ± 134.8 | 203.6 ± 135.1 | 0.232 |
| Milk/Kefir/Yogurt | 89.9 (41.5–171.4) | 70.7 (30.6–162.0) | 94.0 (45.4–200.1) | 0.241 |
| Cheese | 59.6 (31.4–88.6) | 53.6 (21.5–82.3) | 64.3 (40.0–103.3) | 0.058 |
| Total meat/eggs | 127.1 ± 69.0 | 109.9 ± 57.0 | 144.0 ± 76.9 | 0.013 |
| Red meat | 22.3 (4.3–47.3) | 20.7 (3.4–43.1) | 30.0 (5.7–63.0) | 0.188 |
| Poultry | 32.9 (14.3–62.9) | 33.5 (17.1–62.3) | 30.3 (12.1–64.0) | 0.949 |
| Processed meat | 4.3 (0.0–20.0) | 0.0 (0.0–18.3) | 8.6 (0.0–21.4) | 0.172 |
| Egg | 30.6 (15.9–43.8) | 28.6 (10.4–40.6) | 33.3 (19.7–58.6) | 0.123 |
| Fish/seafood | 24.3 (7.5–44.6) | 18.6 (7.1–43.6) | 27.4 (10.0–49.7) | 0.338 |
| Starchy food | 239.4 ± 112.2 | 258.5 ± 112.2 | 220.7 ± 110.1 | 0.090 |
| Cereals/pasta, dry weight | 66.9 ± 48.1 | 68.7 ± 46.3 | 65.1 ± 50.1 | 0.704 |
| Bread | 74.5 ± 46.0 | 84.5 ± 45.8 | 64.7 ± 44.5 | 0.030 |
| Potato | 85.0 ± 62.6 | 93.3 ± 68.4 | 76.8 ± 55.8 | 0.187 |
| Vegetables/legumes | 225.4 (146.0–335.9) | 245.8 (143.8–364.3) | 211.9 (155.1–315.1) | 0.639 |
| Vegetables | 214.4 (142.6–330.9) | 228.7 (136.7–354.6) | 201.9 (146.0–313.0) | 0.704 |
| Legumes | 0.0 (0.0–10.0) | 0.7 (0.0–16.6) | 0.0 (0.0–6.4) | 0.237 |
| Berries/fruit | 132.0 (55.8–233.0) | 122.1 (44.0–230.0) | 144.9 (71.3–255.8) | 0.302 |
| Nuts/seeds/peanuts | 2.1 (0.0–11.0) | 1.9 (0.0–10.1) | 2.9 (0.0–13.3) | 0.552 |
| Confectionery/sweet bakery products | 59.9 ± 44.9 | 65.3 ± 51.9 | 54.7 ± 36.5 | 0.240 |
| Honey and sugar | 21.0 ± 14.7 | 21.3 ± 14.2 | 20.6 ± 15.2 | 0.796 |
Data are mean ± SD or median (IQR). Group differences were assessed using a t-test for means, Mann–Whitney U-test for medians, and Fisher's exact test for categorical variables.
Significant values are in bold.
1Nutrient intake was energy-adjusted by the residual method, macronutrients are additionally presented as a % of energy. E, energy.