Table 1.

Key molecules involved in osteoclast differentiation and metabolic adaptation.

Molecule	Function in osteoclasts	References
PGC1β	Regulating mitochondrial biogenesis	107
Tfam	Regulating mitochondrial DNA metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis	113
Ndufs4	An accessory subunit of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I	117
Myc	Regulating mitochondrial respiratory capacity	116
PKM2	Regulating glycolysis. Downregulation is required for late phase osteoclast differentiation	123
HIF1α	Regulating gene expression (especially glycolysis-involved genes) in response to hypoxic stimuli. Important under pathological conditions	106,133
COMMD1	Negatively regulating osteoclast differentiation, which is inhibited by hypoxia. Important under pathological conditions	124