Table 2.

Causal effects estimated by RAPS and GSMR method for particulate matter exposure on COVID-19 outcomes. GSMR, generalized summary data-based Mendelian randomization. RAPS, robust adjusted profile score.

Exposure	Outcome	RAPS			GSMR
		OR	95%CI	P-value	OR	95%CI	P-value
PM2.5 concentration	Severity	3.37	1.45–7.86	0.0048	3.16	1.39–7.20	0.0062
	Hospitalization	1.95	1.12–3.37	0.017	1.86	1.09–3.16	0.023
	Susceptibility	1.02	0.81–1.29	0.85	1.02	0.81–1.28	0.87
PM2.5 absorbance	Severity	6.05	1.99–18.38	0.0015a	4.91	1.65–14.59	0.0042a
	Hospitalization	3.15	1.54–6.47	0.0018a	2.32	1.12–4.84	0.024
	Susceptibility	1.15	0.82–1.63	0.41	1.14	0.81–1.60	0.46
PM2.5-10 concentration	Severity	1.80	0.60–5.42	0.29	1.74	0.60–5.04	0.31
	Hospitalization	2.15	1.01–4.54	0.046	1.94	0.93–4.04	0.075
	Susceptibility	1.22	0.87–1.72	0.25	1.17	0.84–1.65	0.35
PM10 concentration	Severity	3.97	1.52–10.33	0.0048	3.63	1.42–9.26	0.0069
	Hospitalization	2.35	1.22–4.52	0.010	2.04	1.07–3.88	0.029
	Susceptibility	1.03	0.76–1.41	0.84	1.03	0.76–1.39	0.87

^aP-value <0.0042.