Table 3.

Signs of pain

General signs	Specific signs
Loss of normal behavior	Decreased ambulation or activity, lethargic attitude, decreased appetite, decreased grooming (cats). Harder to assess in the hospital.
Expression of abnormal behaviors	Inappropriate elimination, vocalization, aggression or decreased interaction with other pets or family members, altered facial expression, altered posture, restlessness, hiding (especially in cats).
Reaction to touch	Increased body tension or flinching in response to gentle palpation of injured area and palpation of regions likely to be painful, eg, neck, back, hips, elbows (cats).
Physiologic parameters	Elevations in heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, and blood pressure; pupil dilation.