Table 1.

Overview of GBM 3D organoid methods

Methods	Origin	Other components	Method highlight	Medium	Applications	Ref.
Patient-derived	Patient tumor	Matrigel forms	Orbital shaking, enzymatic digestion, long-term culture	EGF, bFGF, no serum	Profiling, spatial structure	[17]
Patient-derived	Patient tumor	Agar coating	Mechanically mincing, no enzymatic digestion	10% FBS, no growth factor	Profiling, drug screening	[58]
Patient-derived	Patient tumor	No	Mechanically mincing, no enzymatic digestion, long-term culture orbital shaking, can be bio-banked	No serum or growth factor	Profiling, spatial structure, drug test, CAR-T co-culture	[15,22]
Patient-derived	Patient tumor	Matrigel forms	Mechanically mincing, no enzymatic digestion	EGF, bFGF, no serum	Profiling	[62]
iPSC-derived; fusion	Brain organoids from H9	No	Electroporation, CRISPR-mediated HR, HRasG12V/TP53	Differentiation medium with vitamin A	Invasion	[16]
iPSC-derived	Brain organoids from H9	No	Electroporation, CRISPR and transposon, NF1/P53/PTEN triple knockout and others	Differentiation medium with vitamin A	Invasion, treatment response	[20]
iPSC-derived	Patient line	No	patient-specific c-met mutation	E8 medium	Treatment response	[19]
iPSC-derived	Human iPSCs from Domenico Delia	No	Electroporation, mutant human MET and p53R273C	Cortical differentiation medium	Quiescent cell tracing, treatment response	[63]
Fusion	Patient-derived GSCs	Cerebral organoids	Orbital shaking, last for up to 14 days	GSC culture media containing EGF and FGF	Invasion, treatment response	[18]
Fusion	GSCs, GSC spheres	Cerebral organoids	Spinner flask, long-term culture	GSC culture media containing EGF and FGF	Clearing, time lapse imaging	[94]
Fusion	GSC lines	Cerebral organoids	Orbital shaking	GSC culture media containing EGF and FGF	Invasion	[95]
Bio-printing	Human GBM lines	Fibrin bioink, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, HUVECs	Perfusable vasculature, different human-sourced cellular components	10% FBS	Dormancy modeling, vasculature, Cell–cell-interaction, treatment response	[98]
Bio-printing	Patient-derived tumor cells	Brain-decellularized ECM, HUVECs	Cancer-stroma concentric-ring structure	10% FBS	Invasion, microvessels, drug screening	[23]
Bio-printing	GSCs	Hyaluronic acid-rich hydrogel, NPCs, astrocytes, macrophages	Different human-sourced cellular components	GSC culture media containing EGF and FGF	Drug sensitivity, cellular crosstalk, invasion	[100]
Bio-printing	Spheroids from U87	Collagen hydrogel	Microfluidic devices	10% FBS	Migration, drug evaluation	[24]
Bio-printing	Spheroids from tumor specimen	Fibrin hydrogel, HUVECs	Fibrin scaffold	10% FBS	Migration, cellular crosstalk	[101]
Bio-printing	Spheroids from glioma PDX lines	Fibrin, pericytes, astrocytes, endothelial cells	Microfluidic devices, different human-sourced cellular components	PDX culture media	BBB penetration assessment	[99]