Table 2.

Summary of functional roles of vtRNAs in cellular processes

	vtRNA	Related process	Model	Effect	References
1	vtRNA 2-1	Cell differentiation	Sh-SY5Y cells	Targets neurodevelopment-related pathways through svtRNA2-1a	[125]
		Cell proliferation	Primary culture of CD4+ T cells	Inhibits PKR phosphorylation, suppressing CD4+ T-cell proliferation by reducing TGF-β expression	[98]
		Cell proliferation	MMNK1 cells, and CCA cells	Inhibits PKR phosphorylation, suppressing cellular proliferation by deactivating the NF-κB pathway	[84]
		Cell proliferation	HMEC cells	Enhances transcriptional levels of MYC oncogene	[43]
		Innate immunity	Human keratinocytes	Inhibits PKR phosphorylation, decreasing proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, MMP-9, and COX-2 expression	[97]
		Innate immunity	Intestinal organoids and mouse models	Interacts with HuR, disrupting the remodeling of the intestinal epithelial barrier	[103]
2	vtRNA 1-1	Apoptosis	Burkitt lymphoma cell line	Enhances resistance to apoptosis by modulating NF-κB translocation and stimulating the transcription of anti-apoptotic markers	[87]
		Apoptosis	HeLa cells	Activates the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK pro-survival signaling pathways	[127]
		Autophagy	HuH-7 cells	Binds directly to p62, preventing the activation of autophagy	[117, 143, 148]
		Cell differentiation	Cortical neurons	Activates the MAPK pathway for the establishment of axon/dendrite polarity	[120]
		Cell differentiation	HEK293 cells	svtRNA-4 targets CACNG7 and CACNG8 mRNAs associated with neurodevelopmental disorders	[73]
		Cell proliferation	CCK-8 Cells	Binds to PSF establishing a proliferative and drug-resistant phenotype	[129]
		Innate immunity	Burkitt lymphoma cell line	Stimulates proinflammatory cytokines mediated by members of the TNFR superfamily	[87]
3	vtRNA 1-2	Cell proliferation	HEK293T cells	svtRNA 1-2 targets pathways related to cell adhesion and cell membrane physiology, influencing the proliferation phenotype	[65]