Table 3.

Scoping review results.

Author(s), Year of publication and Country of origin	Aim(s) of the study	Population and sample	Study design and methodology	Type of data collection or intervention
Colomer-Pérez et al. (2020) Spain.	To describe the relationship of Health Assets identified in campus. And coping skills in their learning (and living) environment.	921 Students from nursing auxiliary certification (CNA) of all public upper secondary education centers in the Comunitat Valenciana.	Mixed method cross-sectional study. This is a follow-up study of Colomer-Perez et al.’s 2019, conducted in 2016.	Self-administered online questionnaire.
Fernández-Martínez et al. (2019) Spain.	To analyze coping strategies, engagement, EI and SOC and how these variables differentially contribute to self-reported health and well-being.	463 undergraduate nursing students from a Spanish public university.	Cross-sectional study.	Questionnaire application using Lime Survey online tool.
Colomer-Pérez et al. (2019) Spain.	To explore the salutogenic paradigm among nursing assistant students in a region of Spain (Comunitat Valenciana).	First-year Nursing Assistant Certification students from all public upper secondary schools in the Comunitat Valenciana. The sample was 921.	Cross-sectional, analytical and exploratory study conducted in 2016.	Self-administered online questionnaire.
Burguillos Peña (2014) Spain.	The aim of the study was to describe two fundamental variables in people’s health behaviors, a SOC and perceived EI. To analyze the possible cases of social phobia and the tendencies to anxiety and social avoidance. With these, to investigate the relationship that may exist between SOC and social phobia, and between this and perceived EI.	The sample, was composed of 65 students of the Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology and the Diploma in Social Education of the University of Huelva.	Descriptive study.	Application of face-to-face questionnaire.
Szcześniak and Strochalska (2019) Poland.	The research focused on exploring the role of both temperament, as this has been confirmed as a potential component in the development of more complex traits that emerge later in life, and of EI as this has been found to increase SOC.	The sample consisted of 173 participants between 18 and 49 years old.	Cross-sectional study.	Online questionnaire
Fernandez-Martinez et al. (2017) Spain.	To describe the degree of emotional exhaustion and SOC in a sample of university students. In addition, to analyze whether there is a relationship between emotional exhaustion and SOC and this in different academic years and by gender.	Population: University students, sample of 960. The majority are from the field of health sciences.	Cross-sectional study.	Application of the questionnaire in person.
Shankland et al. (2019) France.	The hypothesis was that daily hassles had an effect on academic burnout and that the SOC mediated the relationship between daily hassles and academic burnout. A secondary aim was to explore the relative importance of SOC in explaining academic burnout variance, compared to optimism.	The study was conducted on a sample of 328 third- and fourth-year students in psychology, educational sciences, sports, and sociology in three French universities.	Cross-sectional study.	Questionnaire applied in person.
Manuel Blanco-Donoso et al. (2018) Spain.	The objective of this research is to examine how a particular resource (e.g., cognitive reappraisal) helps people form a SOC.	Psychology students were recruited from Psychology of Personality classes at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. The final sample consisted of 214 participants.	Cross-sectional study.	A battery of questionnaires was administered of the variables included in the study.
Zhan et al. (2020) China.	To investigate the mediation role of social support in the relationship between a SOC and the perception of professional interests among Chinese registered nurses.	Population Chinese registered nurses, the sample was 765 nurses.	Cross-sectional study.	Application of a 4-part questionnaire in person.
Hochwälder and Saied (2018) Sweden.	The aim of the study was to test the following two main hypotheses: (1) The avoidance hypothesis: Students with a high SOC experience fewer daily hassles, compared to students with a low SOC. (2) The appraisal hypothesis: Students with a high SOC experience the daily hassles as less stressful, compared to students with a low SOC.	A total of 394 students at a university in Sweden agreed to participate in this study, including students of psychology, economics, education, civil engineering, physiotherapy, nursing and behavioral sciences.	Cross-sectional study.	Application of a questionnaire in person.
Hori et al. (2022) China.	The aims were to test the following three hypotheses: 1. Empathy correlates with self-vigor or self-depression mood in healthcare professionals. 2. Empathy correlates with self-vigor or self-depression mood through SOC mediation. 3. Age moderates the SOC mediation on the relation between empathy and self-moods.	Healthcare professionals (n = 132).	Quasi experimental study.	Smile-Sun Method developed by Kazue Takayanagi, consisted in four training sessions applied to different professionals.

Scoping review results, Part 2
Author(s), Year of publication and Country of origin	Main results	Duration of the intervention	Measures used	Relevant conclusions
Colomer-Pérez et al. (2020) Spain.	The relationship between the intrapersonal HA identified and the scores on the SOC, it is found that those students who outlined aspects related to “caring for others” received higher scores on the SOC than those who identified other introspective behaviors. In the case of the relationship with interpersonal HA, it is found that those who identified their children as health and well-being generating factors have higher SOC scores. Students showed a vocational orientation in choosing this career, they scored higher in SOC and were also the ones who most frequently identified the concept of caring for others within intrapersonal HA.	Time to complete the questionnaire	The questionnaire collected socio demographic data. Some open-ended questions were used to identify HA (intrapersonal, interpersonal, extrapersonal) that enhanced their well-being. SOC levels were assessed using the 13-item Life Orientation Questionnaire (OLQ-13).	These consistent associations between the caregiving factor and the vocational factor with specific reported HA support the salutogenic and asset-based approach. Ultimately, a salutogenic educational strategy rooted in: strengthen CNA students’ SOC, dynamize their HA map, strengthen their sense of vocation, which delves into the zest for healthcare work, consequently enabling them to buffer against work related caregiving stress.
Fernández-Martínez et al. (2019) Spain.	The results show that emotional repair is a mediating variable with little explanatory power when analyzing the relationships between psychological health and SOC. Coping was associated with engagement, EI, and SOC. In addition, nursing students with higher engagement scores also had higher scores for general health, EI, SOC, and some coping strategies. In our sample, psychological health was associated with commitment and vigor of engagement, EI in all its dimensions, SOC, and most of the coping strategies analyzed.	The time required to complete the online questionnaire was not specified by the authors.	The questionnaire used consisted of the following instruments: Students’ health was measured by the Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). EI was assessed with the Spanish abbreviated version of the Trait Meta-Mood (TMMS-24). Commitment was assessed using the student version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-Student). SOC was measured using the Sense of Coherence Scale, SOC-13. And coping was measured with the COPE-28 scale.	Those students who perceived better health scored higher on engagement, EI, SOC, and coping strategies. In particular, improving students’ SOC and fostering emotional skills such as repair would help promote the health of individual nursing students. In addition, according to the results of the mediation model, the SOC influences health directly and indirectly through emotional repair.
Colomer-Pérez et al. (2019) Spain.	They found correlations between SOC and being older, being female, and living in an urban environment, factors that appear to influence having a strong SOC, which clearly contributes to having better defense mechanisms against stressors inherent to performance in health sciences.	Time for completion of the questionnaire, not specified by the authors.	A questionnaire developed by the principal investigator was used: SOC assessed by the Life Orientation Questionnaire −13 items (OLQ-13). Subjective mean score to be obtained in the course. Motivation for the choice of studies, measured by developing ad hoc categories.	Having a strong SOC seems to contribute to improved stress resistance, which may in part justify the motivation to study something that is enjoyable and to perform well academically, despite being a demanding and stressful profession. This results in professionals who are more resistant to burnout with more internal strategies for professional development, personal satisfaction, and professional competence.
Burguillos Peña (2014) Spain.	The difference in means between the variable “SOC” and “EI” is statistically significant With regard to the relationship between both variables, and the direction of this, we can comment that they have a significant relationship. It is a positive relationship, that is, both score at the same level, the greater the SOC, the greater the EI, and vice versa.	The authors did not specify the time required to complete the questionnaire.	SOC was measured by the SOC-13 questionnaire. EI by TMMS-24, based on the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) of the research group of Salovey and Mayer. The Social Anxiety and Avoidance Scale (SAD) was used to assess the social phobia.	Subjects with social phobia (SF) are perceived as having a lower EI than the group of people without phobia. Regarding the SOC, it can be observed that the mean of the clinical cases of SF is lower than the group of “non-cases.” The relationship between SOC and EI is positive, so that both variables would be related to the presence of social phobia.
Szcześniak and Strochalska (2019) Poland.	Based on the obtained results, it can be stated that EI mediates the relationship between temperament, SOC, and global life orientation. The study also showed a negative correlation between depressive temperament and SOC. Also shows positive correlations between hyperthymic temperament, SOC, and EI. Finally, EI acted as a mediator in the relationship between different dimensions of temperament and the SOC.	Time to complete the online questionnaire, not specified by the authors.	Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa and San Diego Auto questionnaire (TEMPS-A), Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ), and Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (INTE).	This research provides strong evidence for the mediating role of EI between temperament and SOC. The results support Antonovsky’s theory that individuals’ SOC is largely determined by their resources (temperament) and their ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions in the self (EI). In terms of practical implications, the findings suggest the importance of EI training in dealing with less functional temperamental tendencies.
Fernandez-Martinez et al. (2017) Spain.	SOC is negatively related to emotional exhaustion. The results suggest that people who score higher on SOC have lower levels of emotional exhaustion. No differences were found between men and women on the SOC variable, but differences were found on the emotional exhaustion variable, with women scoring higher. Statistically significant differences were observed between the first and second year with regard to the SOC.	The response time was about 20 min.	The abbreviated SOC-13 Sense of Coherence Questionnaire. The Emotional Fatigue Scale (ECE) for university students, by Ramos, Manga and Morán. A questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic data.	The study confirms the relationship between emotional exhaustion and SOC. There is an inverse relationship between SOC and emotional exhaustion. Differences in SOC were found between first- and third-year students, with higher scores obtained by students in the highest year. This finding would be consistent with Antonovsky’s suggestion that the SOC increases with age up to the age of 30.
Shankland et al. (2019) France.	Direct effects of daily hassles were significant for two dimensions of burnout. SOC was related to the three dimensions of burnout. In addition, all the indirect effects were found to be significant. There was a full mediation of the relationship between daily hassles and the Academic Self-Efficacy subscale by SOC.	Questionnaire completion time, not specified by the authors.	SOC was assessed using the French version of the Sense of Coherence scale (SOC-13). Trait optimism was assessed using the French version of the Life Orientation Test Revised.	As was suggested, SOC mediated the relationship between daily hassles and academic burnout. These results underline the importance of SOC in academic burnout and also suggest that it is important to work on reducing the salience of daily hassles in university students’ minds.
Manuel Blanco-Donoso et al. (2018) Spain.	Cognitive reappraisal and SOC were positively and significantly associated with the variable positive affect. Negative affect correlated significantly and negatively with SOC dimensions, especially with comprehensibility. Examining each SOC dimension, manageability and meaningfulness were significantly and positively associated with cognitive reappraisal.	The authors did not specify the time required to complete the questionnaire.	To measure cognitive appraisal, participants completed the Cognitive Appraisal scale of the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), using the validated and adapted Spanish version of this scale. The Life Orientation Questionnaire (OLQ) was used for SOC. And emotion was measured with the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS).	The cognitive reappraisal was found to predict positive affect. And also, significantly predicted the manageability, meaningfulness, and usefulness reported by students. The scores obtained on the different dimensions of the SOC were high and predicted positive affect positively and negative affect negatively.
Zhan et al. (2020) China.	SOC was considered as a predictor variable, social support as a mediator variable, and perceived career benefits as an outcome variable. The direct path indicated that a SOC had a direct positive predictive effect on perceived career benefits. The indirect path showed that a SOC, through the function of the mediating variable ‘social support’, had a positive effect on perceived occupational benefits.	Time to complete the 4-part questionnaire, not reported by the authors.	The research questionnaire consisted of four parts: General Information., the SOC Scale (SOC-13), the Social Support Revalued Scale (SSRC), and Perceived Job Benefits Questionnaire.	Social support partially mediates the relationship between a SOC and perceived professional benefits among Chinese registered nurses. Therefore, interventions should be developed based on social support to enhance nurses’ SOC and increase their perceived professional benefits.
Hochwälder and Saied, (2018) Sweden.	Students with a high SOC, compared to students with a low SOC, experienced: fewer daily hassles; daily hassles as less stressful. Furthermore, female and male students did not differ in the number of hassles they experienced, but female students experienced hassles more intensively. There were no significant interactions between SOC and gender on frequency and intensity ratings.	The questionnaire typically took 15–20 min to complete.	After providing their gender, age, and major, participants were asked to provide their responses regarding SOC and daily hassles. SOC was measured using the SOC- 29. Retrospective experience of daily hassles was measured using a scale developed by Maybery.	The results confirm fundamental parts of Antonovsky’s salutogenic model regarding the relationship between SOC and the avoidance and appraisal of stressors in the form of daily hassles. The implications are that efforts should be made to promote higher SOC in students in order to make the effects of daily hassles less harmful.
Hori et al. (2022) China.	The study found that higher levels of empathy were associated with higher SOC, which in turn was positively related to health professionals’ self-efficacy mood. This SOC-mediated relationship was moderated by age. This pattern was also observed with regard to self-depressive mood reduction among health care professionals. A higher empathy was associated with higher SOC, which was then related to lower levels of self-depressed mood.	Training of 4 sessions of one and a half hours each plus the time for the application of the questionnaire.	Empathy was assessed using the Empathy Process Scale (EPS). SOC was assessed with a 13-item abbreviated version of Orientation to Life Questionnaire. Situational mood was assessed with the Profile of Mood States (POMS) short Japanese version.	The results suggest that among healthcare professionals, empathy might promote self-vigor mood and play a protective role against self-depressive mood mediated by SOC. The study suggests the importance of individual differences, such as the growth level of SOC. It can potentially contribute to the design and implementation of interventions to regulate empathy skills, especially for well-being.