Table 2.
EMA Study Methodology
| Study | Length of EMA Period (Days) | Number Surveys Per Day | Total Number of Items Per Survey | Sampling Schedule | EMA Completion Reward | Technology Used | Analysis Approach | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ainsworth, Palmier-Claus35 | 6 | 4 | 35 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 15 min windows to complete survey. | $38 USD | SMS and mobile app | Multilevel modeling |
| 2 | Bartolomeo, Raugh36 | 6 | 8 | 16 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 18 min to 3 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 25 min window to complete: 10 min prior to and 15 min after receiving a notification | $ 20 USD per hour for laboratory testing, $1 USD per EMA survey completed, $80 USD for returning the phone at the end of the study. | Smartphone app mEMA app from ilumivu |
Multilevel modeling |
| 3 | Bell, Rossell11 | 6 | 10 | 39 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 4 blocks of a personalized 12 h waking window. 15 min window to complete survey. | None | Smartphone app Movisens |
NA |
| 4 | Bell, Velthorst37 | 7 | 10 | 34 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled at least 1 h apart within 12 h window from 8 AM to 10:30 PM with at least 15 min and at most 1.5 h between 2 consecutive beep. |
40 pounds | iPod | Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 5 | Ben-Zeev, Ellington38 | 7 | 4 | 8 | Randomized prompts are scheduled at equal intervals across 13 h window from 9 AM to 10 PM. | $35 USD | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Multilevel modeling |
| 6 | Ben-Zeev, Frounfelker39 | 7 | 6 | 24 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 4 blocks of a personalized 12 h waking window. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Experience Sampling Program version 4.0 |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 7 | Ben-Zeev, McHugo40 | 7 | 6 | 13 | Randomized prompts are scheduled at equal intervals across 13 h window from 9 AM to 10 PM. | NA | PDA Experience Sampling Program version 4.0 |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 8 | Ben-Zeev, Morris41 | 7 | 4 | 15 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 4 blocks of a personalized 12 h waking window. 15-min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 9 | Berry, Emsley42 | 6 | 6 | 33 | Pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within personalized 11-h waking window. 15 min window to complete survey. | None | Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 10 | Brand, Bendall43 | 6 | 10 | 4 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart within 10 h window from 10 AM to 8 PM. 15 min windows to complete survey. | NA | Mobile app Movisens |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 11 | Buck, Munson44 | 30 | 4 | 12 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled at least 3 apart within 12-h window from 9 AM to 9 PM | $75USD | Smartphone app | Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 12 | Cristóbal‐Narváez, Sheinbaum45 | 7 | 8 | 13 | Randomized prompts are scheduled across 12 h window from 10 AM to m-10 PM. | NA | PDA | Multilevel modeling |
| 13 | Daemen, van Amelsvoort46 | 6 | 10 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 90-min window between 7:30 AM and 10:30 PM 10-min windows to complete survey. | NA | Smartphone app PsyMate |
Proximal aggregated and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 14 | Daemen, van Amelsvoort47 | 6 | 10 | 10 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 90-min apart within 12 h window from 7:30 AM to 10:30 PM. | NA | Smartphone app PsyMate |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 15 | Dokuz, Kani48 | 6 | 10 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 90-min apart within 16 h window from 7:00 to 23:00 or 08:00 to 00:00. 15 min windows to complete survey. | NA | Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 16 | Dupuy, Abdallah49 | 7 | 5 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 3 blocks of a 15 h waking window. | 100 Euros for EMA and MRI component of study | Mobile app | Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 17 | Fett, Hanssen50 | 7 | 10 | 34 | Pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 14.5-h window between 8 AM and 10.30 PM. | 40 British Pounds | iPod/iPhone | Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 18 | Fielding-Smith, Greenwood51 | 9 | 10 | 8 | Stratified pseudorandomized sampling within equal blocks during day. Max 15 min to respond. | NA | Mobile app Movisens |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 19 | Gaudiano, Ellenberg52 | 28 | 4 | 13 | Randomized prompts are scheduled within 12 hour window 9 AM–9 PM. One fixed prompt at 9 PM. | $0.50 per survey, up to $60 | Smartphone app MyExperience Tool |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 20 | Geraets, Snippe53 | 6 to 10 | 10 | 16 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1.5 h apart within 13 h window from 7:30 AM to 10:30 PM. | 30 Euro | Mobile app PsyMate |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling and network analysis |
| 21 | Gohari, Moore54 | 30 | 3 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 2 h apart within participant’s sleep and wake schedule. 1 h windows to complete survey. | NA | Android smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 22 | Granholm, Loh55 | 7 | 4 | 14 | Randomized prompts are scheduled at equal intervals across 13 h window from 9 AM to 10 PM. | $35 USD | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Multilevel modeling |
| 23 | Hanssen, Balvert56 | 21 | 6 | 15 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1.5 h apart within 12 h window from 10 AM to 10 PM | 150 Euros | Mobile app SMARTapp |
Multilevel modeling |
| 24 | Hartley, Haddock57 | 6 | 10 | 5 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled intervals across 15 h between 9 AM and 12 AM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA ESP software |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 25 | Hartley, Haddock58 | 6 | 10 | 7 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled intervals across 15 h between 9 AM and 12 AM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA ESP software |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 26 | Harvey, Miller59 | 30 | 3 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 2 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 1 h windows to complete survey. | NA | SMS web link sent to Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 27 | Jongeneel, Aalbers9 | 6 | 10 | 45 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 15 h between 7:30 AM and 10:30 PM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | Mobile app PsyMate |
Proximal and time-lagged, Time series network analysis |
| 28 | Kammerer, Mehl60 | 6 | 10 | 9 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled intervals at least 30 min apart across 12 hs between 10 AM and 10 PM. | 45 Euros | Mobile app Movisens |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 29 | Kimhy, Lister61 | 1.5 | 10 | 10 | Randomized prompts within 12 h window between 10 AM and 10 PM. | NA | PDA iESP software |
Descriptive statistics, t-tests, correlations, moderation |
| 30 | Kimhy, Vakhrusheva62 | 2 | 10 | 16 | Randomized prompts within 12 h window between 10 AM and 10 PM. | NA | PDA iESP software |
Multilevel modeling |
| 31 | Kimhy, Wall63 | 3 | 10 | NA | Randomized prompts within 12 h window between 10 AM and 10 PM. | NA | PDA iESP software |
Multilevel modeling |
| 32 | Kimhy, Delespaul64 | 1 | 10 | 16 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h between 10 AM and 10 PM. 3 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA iESP software |
Multilevel modeling |
| 33 | Klippel65 | 6 | 10 | 23 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts. 10 min to complete survey | NA | PDA PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 34 | Ludwig, Mehl66 | 6 | 10 | 19 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h between 10 AM and 10 PM. 30 min window to complete survey. | 45 Euros | Mobile app Movisens |
Time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 35 | Lüdtke, Kriston67 | 2 | 8 | 5 | Fixed intervals of 4 h periods across 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 5 min to complete survey | NA | PC, laptop, smartphone, or tablet EFS Survey |
Time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 36 | Lüdtke, Moritz68 | 7 | 10 | 13 | NA | NA | Smartphone | Time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 37 | Miller, Harvey69 | 30 | 3 | 10 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h between 9 AM and 9 PM. 1 h window to complete survey. | NA | Mobile app | Multilevel modeling |
| 38 | Moitra, Park70 | 28 | 4 | 13 | Randomized prompts are scheduled within 12 h window 9 AM–9 PM. One fixed prompt at 9 PM. | $0.50 USD per survey | PDA MyExperience |
Correlations |
| 39 | Monsonet, Rockwood71 | 7 | 8 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled within 11 h window from 11 AM to 10 PM. 15 min windows to complete survey. | NA | PDA and Smartphone app | Multilevel modeling |
| 40 | Morgan, Strassnig72 | 30 | 3 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 1 h windows to complete survey. | $1USD for each survey and $50USD endpoint assessment | SMS Web link sent to Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 41 | Mulligan, Haddock73 | 7 | 5 | 16 | Stratified random intervals within tailored waking hours. 10 min to complete survey. | NA | PDA CamNtech PRO-Diary |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 42 | Nittel, Lincoln74 | 6 | 10 | 16 | Randomized prompts within 14 h window between 9 AM and 11 PM. | 30 Euros | iPod touch iDialogPad |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 43 | Orth, Hur75 | 7 | 8 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart within 13 h window from 8 AM to 9 PM. 15 min windows to complete survey. | monetary bonus for completing 80% of EMAs | Smartphone app OmniTrack for Research |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 44 | Palmier-Claus, Ainsworth18 | 7 | 6 | 31 | Pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart across 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 15 min window to complete survey | None | Smartphone app ClinTouch |
Aggregated descriptive statistics and correlation |
| 45 | Parrish, Chalker76 | 10 | 3 | 7 | Fixed schedule is chosen by participant (morning, afternoon, and evening). 1 h window to complete survey. | $1.66 per survey, max $50 | Mobile app | Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 46 | Parrish, Chalker77 | 10 | 3 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 2 h. 15 min windows to complete survey. | $1.66USD for each survey completed, for a maximum of $50USD | NeuroUX platform web link sent to Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 47 | Perez, Tercero78 | 3 | 30 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 2 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 1 h windows to complete survey. | NA | SMS Web link sent to Smartphone | Multilevel modeling |
| 48 | Pieters, Deenik79 | 7 | 8 | 24 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 90-min apart within 12 h window from 10 AM to 10 PM. 15 min windows to complete survey. | NA | Smartphone app PsyMate |
Descriptive statistics |
| 49 | Pos, Meijer80 | 6 | 10 | 52 | Randomized prompts within 15 h window between 7:30 AM and 10:30 PM. | NA | PDA PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 50 | Radley, Barlow81 | 10 | 6 | 21 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 1 h apart within 14 h window from 9 AM to 11 PM. 5 min windows to complete survey. | 25 pounds | Smartphone app mobileQ |
Time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 51 | Raugh, James20 | 6 | 8 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 90-min apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 25 min windows to complete survey. | $1USD per survey completed, and an $80 USDbonus for returning the study phone. | Smartphone app Ilumivu and the Alert app from Empatica |
Multilevel modeling |
| 52 | Raugh, Strauss82 | 6 | 8 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled at least 90-min apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM? minute windows to complete survey. | NA | Smartphone app Ilumivu and the Alert app from Empatica |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 53 | Reininghaus, Kempton83 | 6 | 10 | 24 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts within 90-min blocks. 10 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 54 | Reininghaus, Gayer-Anderson84 | 6 | 10 | 18 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts within 90-min blocks. 10 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 55 | Reininghaus, Oorschot85 | 6 | 10 | 24 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts within 90-min blocks. 10-min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 56 | Sa, Wearden86 | 6 | 10 | 26 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 15 h between 9 AM and 12 AM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA ESP software |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 57 | Schick, Van Winkel87 | 6 | 10 | NA | 10 times a day on 6 consecutive days with a semi-random sampling scheme within a fixed, predefined time frame | NA | Smartphone app PsyMate |
Multilevel modeling |
| 58 | Smelror, Bless88 | 12 (average) | 5 | 5 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h between 10 AM and 10 AM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | iPod touch App developed in house |
Summary statistics, spearman’s correlation |
| 59 | So, Chung89 | 6 | 10 | 9 | Randomized prompts at least 30 min apart within 10–12 h waking window. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | Smartphone/ipod touch | Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 60 | So, Chau90 | 14 | 7 | 7 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h tailored to sleep–wake cycle. 20 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Time-lagged multilevel modeling |
| 61 | So, Peters91 | 14 | 7 | 23 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h tailored to sleep–wake cycle. 20 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Multilevel modeling |
| 62 | So, Peters92 | 14 | 7 | 20 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h tailored to sleep–wake cycle. 20 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Multilevel modeling |
| 63 | Steenkamp, Parrish93 | 10 | 3 | NA | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts are scheduled at least 2 h apart within 12 h window from 9 AM to 9 PM. 1 h windows to complete survey. | Each survey completed, participants received $1.66 USD with a maximum of $50 USD. | SMS Web link sent to phone | Multilevel modeling |
| 64 | Strauss, Esfahlani94 | 6 | 4 | 46 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h between 9 AM–9 PM. 15 min window to complete survey. | NA | PDA Experience Sampling Program software |
Markov chain analysis + proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling + network analysis |
| 65 | Swendsen, Ben-Zeev95 | 7 | 4 | 10 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h tailored to sleep–wake cycle. 15 min window to complete survey. | $35 USD | PDA Purdue Momentary Assessment Tool (PMAT) |
Time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 66 | Vilardaga, Hayes96 | 6 | 9 | 14 | Stratified pseudorandomized prompts scheduled intervals across 12 h tailored to sleep–wake cycle. 15 min window to complete survey. | $10 USD + $5 for meeting 80% survey completion | PDA MyExperience |
Proximal and time-lagged Multilevel modeling |
| 67 | Westermann, Grezellschak97 | 7 | 10 | 8 | Unclear | 30 Euro | Smartphone app Movisens |
Markov chain multilevel modeling |
| 68 | Wright, Palmer-Cooper98 | 14 | 7 | 27 | NA | NA | Smartphone app mindLAMP |
Proximal and time-lagged multilevel modeling |
Note: USD, US Dollar; SMS, short messaging service; PDA, personal digital assistant.
*The term multilevel modeling was used as a broad term for analyses employing a multilevel structure, including Hierarchical linear model, Linear mixed model, Mixed multilevel regression, Multilevel linear mixed effects model, Multilevel linear regression, etc.