Table 1.

PICOS framework

Concept	Concept details
Population (P)	Studies that included parents, parent–child dyads, and families with a child whose mean age was between 0 and 5 years (including pre- and peri-natal period) who fell on the universal risk continuum.
Intervention (I)	Studies with a self-directed, digital (online or app-based) parenting program designed for universal general population prevention (as opposed to selected and indicated prevention, and treatment for higher-risk groups). A minimum of 50% of the program was self-guided, automated, pre-recorded, non-facilitated (i.e., non-clinician supported) that described a socioemotionally based parenting education or support program delivered through any online means (e.g., phone application, chat-box interactions, website) for those with children aged pre-birth-5 years (inclusive), with web-based adaptions of traditional in-person programs also included. The program must have been developed by expert practitioner or researcher, within in an accredited academic and/or clinical setting. Program development was based on an aetiological model and thus evidence-informed.
Comparison (C)	Studies with an inactive and/or minimally active comparison group that either received no therapy, a placebo intervention, or care as usual. Here we define “minimally active” as those controls that received care as usual with optional access to static information resources only.
Outcome (O)	Studies that assessed parent and child emotional and/or relational health, from pregnancy to 5 years of age. It was also required that a standardized mean difference (Cohen’s d) was reported or could be determined from reported data.
Study design (S)	Experimental and quasi-experimental studies with a between-group design were included.