Table 2.

Sample, program characteristics, & study design (N = 22)

Study, Country	Study design	Int. N, % Female, % Attrition	Parent age (M)	Child age (M or range)	Sample criteria. Recruitment	Program name	Delivery method	Program goals Length & duration (L&D)	Guidance provided	Socioemotional outcomes	Program content
Baggett et al. (2010), USA†	RCT pre/post	20, 100, 5	24.5	3-8 mo	Mother; low SES. Flyers posted in public & community service settings	Infant-Net	Website	Enhance parenting capacity L&D: 10 × 90 min sessions	Weekly phone coaching	PPD, Mother-infant interaction	Reading infant signals; warm & sensitive behaviors, maintaining infants’ attention; use of rich verbal content with physical demonstrations; application in everyday life
Breitenstein (2021), USA†	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	144, 80, 11	32.8	2.2 yr	Parent of child 2–5 yr. Primary care settings	ez PARENT	App	Manage child behavior L&D: modules completed every 1–2 wks over 12 wks	Fully self-guided	Parent behavior, Parenting self-efficacy, Stress, Child problems & prosocial behavior	1–2) child relationship-building skills; 3–5) behavior management skills; 6) stress management & problem-solving skills
Ciochoń (2022), Poland	Quasi-exp pre/post	427, 100, -	30.26	–	Mothers; non-smokers, 2nd or 3rd pregnancy trimester, during Covid. Social media, radio, & motherhood magazines		Online	Reduce perinatal maternal anxiety & depression L&D: -	NR	Anxiety, Depression	Online content includes but not limited to antenatal education (e.g., labour, breastfeeding, prenatal care) and relaxation
Dol et al. (2022), Canada	RCT pre/post	78, 100, 30	31.4	4.4 days	Mothers; > 18 yrs; 37 wks pregnant – 10 days PP; mobile access; English literate; child birthed in Nova Scotia Social media, posters	Essential Coach for Every Mother	SMS	Improve mothers’ access to information about caring for themselves and their newborns during the immediate six-wk postnatal period L&D: 6 wks (2 texts daily)	Full self-guided	Self-efficacy, social support, PP anxiety, PP depression	53 standardized evidence-based text messages. Topics related to newborn care and postpartum maternal mental health
Ehrensaft et al. (2016), USA†	RCT pre/post	26, 100, 31	23.76	2–6 yr	Mother; college student, reside with child ≥ 50% of time; child birthed ≤ 25 yrs old, child 2-6 yrs. Attend inner-city college; child attend college childcare	Triple P Online	Website	Improving parenting practices L&D: 20 min- > 2 h modules over 8-12 wks	Fully self-guided	Stress, Dysfunctional discipline	1) what is positive parenting; 2) encouraging behavior you like; 3) teaching new skills; 4) managing misbehavior; 5) dealing with disobedience; 6) preventing problems by planning; 7) making shopping fun; 8) raising confident, capable kids
Huang et al. (2021), China	RCT pre/post/ follow-up^	20, 100, 10	27.15	-	Women; ≥ 18 yr; first-time mothers; English literate; internet access. Maternity & obstetric wards	-	Website	Increase self-efficacy, provide social support, reduce PPD symptoms L&D: 2 h wkly sessions over 12 wks	Online support forum; routine PP care	Maternal self-efficacy, Depression, Social support	ISP program contents include infant common diseases, daily infant care, growth & development, feeding, postnatal care for women. Online support forums
Jareethum et al. (2008), Thailand	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	32, 100, 6	28.72		Woman ≥ 18 yr; no medical diseases; single preg; ≤ 28 wks gest. Antenatal care hospital	-	SMS	Prevent/warn of complications & reduce concerns during preg L&D: 12 wks	Fully self-guided	Pregnancy satisfaction, Confidence level, Anxiety level	Content included information & warnings relating to abnormal preg effects that would require doctor consultation. 2 × texts per wk
Jiao et al. (2019), Singapore	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	68, 100, 4	31.1	0-12mo	First-time mother; ≥ 21 yr; English proficient; low-risk single preg; ≥ 28 wks gest; intent to reside in Singapore 3 mos. post-delivery. Hospital wards	-	Website	Enhance self-efficacy, social support, psychological well-being, maternal satisfaction L&D: 4 wks	CAU, expert discussion Forum; calls to promote site use	Parental self-efficacy, Infant care social support, Postnatal depression, Anxiety	Postnatal experiences; maternal self-care (including physical, emotional, &sexual health); newborn care, & social support
Lennard et al. (2021), AU & NZ	RCT pre/post	231, 100, 59	32.77	0-2 yr	Mother; ≥ 18 yr; birthed within last 2 yr; reside AU/NZ. Websites, social media, parenting forums	-	Website	Improve infant mothers’ self‐compassion & mental health. L&D: 8 wks	Fully self-guided with weekly SMS reminders	Compassion, Psychological flexibility, Depression, Anxiety, Stress, PTSD symptoms	1) psychoeducation & ideas to promote self‐compassion in motherhood transition; 2) guided self‐compassion visualization exercise. ‐
Lindsay and Totsika (2017), UK	Quasi-exp pre/post	675, 92, 44		0-6 yr	Parents; reside within three local authorities Child centers, community organizations, pharmacies	CAN parent	Website, in-person mixed	Reduce parent stress; increase parent efficacy, satisfaction, mental health L&D: 1-10 wks	Fully self-guided	Parenting efficacy, Parenting interest, Parenting satisfaction, Parenting stress, Parent mental well-being	Includes managing routines & boundaries, supporting each other’s parenting, positive behavior, play & exploration, secure relationships, who’s in charge. 1–10 sessions
Matvienko-Sikar and Dockray (2017), Ireland	RCT pre/post/ follow-up^	32, 100, 26	33.87	10-22 wk. gest	Female; ≥ 18 yr; pregnant; no medical concerns. Online, forums, posters	–	Website	Improving prenatal well-being through gratitude & mindfulness. L&D: 4 × wkly use over 3 wks	Fully self-guided	Prenatal stress, Depression, Satisfaction with life, Gratitude, Mindfulness	1) BodyScan & Reflection, 2) Reflection & BodyScan. Program components: 1) gratitude diary; 2) mindfulness listening. In gratitude diary, participants listed up to 5 things they felt grateful for in prior 24 h
Mogil et al. (2022), USA	RCT pre/post/follow-up	171, 56, 13	–	53.8 mo	Families; child 3–6 yrs ≥ one Army-serving parent Social media advertising, military/ veteran events, WoM	-	Online	Promote resilience & psychological well-being L&D: -	Fully self-guided	Parent psychological well‑being, Parent–child relationship, Child affect & behaviour	1) Positive Parenting.2) Supporting Child Development. 3) Maintaining Self-Care.4) Navigating Family Transition
Na and Chia (2008), Singapore	RCT Pre/post	411, 68, 65		0-6 yr	Parents; child 0-6 yr; basic internet knowledge; English proficient; device access Newspapers, magazines	KidzGrow Online	Website	Positive parenting skills to support child learning L&D: 12 wks	Fully self-guided	Amount & quality of parent–child time, Parenting knowledge, Parents’ attitude, confidence, Support	Online content includes, but is not limited to, cognition, speech & language, social skills development
Park and Bang (2022), South Korea	Quasi-exp pre/post	15, 0, 7	35.5	2-6 mo	Fathers; children 8–24 wks The Seoul Baby Health First Step Project	–	Online lectures	Improving father-infant interactions, child-rearing knowledge, & attachment relationships. L&D: 5 wks	Home-visits educated by researcher	Father-infant attachment, Father-infant interaction	Developing the caregiver’s sensitivity, building infant developmental knowledge, and recognizing the teaching loop during father-infant interactions
Salonen et al. (2014), Finland	Quasi-exp pre/post/ follow-up	433, 100, 42	30.9	Prenatal-12 mo	Primi/multiparous; Finnish-speaking; single birth; no early discharge; mothers receiving home visits. Maternity hospital	–	Website	Designed to strengthen parenting satisfaction & parental self-efficacy L&D: -	Online peer forum; expert Q&A support	Parenting satisfaction & Infant centrality, Depressive symptoms	Tasks related to parent–child interaction in everyday situations over 6 themes: 1) for mothers; 2) for fathers; 3) your baby; 4) life as a couple & family; 5) what to do when you’re in trouble & 6) support for the family
Sari and Altay (2020), Turkey†	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	35, 100, 16	30.82	33-37wk. gest	Mother ≥ 18; 33–37 wks gest, primary school completion, Turkish speaker; birth weight 2.5-4 kg. Primary care clinics	–	Website	Teach infant growth, development & self-efficacy L&D: 3-5 wks	Expert consults within website	Parental self-efficacy	1) my baby's nutrition; 2) my baby's bath & care, 3) my baby's sleep & safety; 4) communication with baby
Sawyer et al. (2017), AU	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	381, 100, 8	32.7	1-7 mo	New mother; English proficient; expert supported participation. Community clinic health check	Mums’ eTalk	Website	To provide postnatal support to mothers without the need for postnatal home-based help. L&D: 24 wks	Clinic CAU & peer online forum nurse moderated	Self-competence, Social support, Child socioemotional development, Attachment, Well-being, Spousal support	11 online topics including sleeping & settling, nappies, breastfeeding, infant development, Baby’s milestones, key dates
Shorey et al. (2017), Singapore	RCT pre/post	126, 50, 17	32.08	35-41 wk. gest	Parents; ≥ 21 yr, English literate, device access Maternity hospital discharge	Home-but not Alone	App	Support parent transition; increase self-efficacy, social support, satisfaction; reduce depression. L&D: 4 wks	Peer discussion; midwife consults; CAU	Parenting self-efficacy, Parenting social support, Postnatal depression, Parenting satisfaction	Online content included newborn & maternal care; postnatal depression, newborn care tasks, needs of multiparas, parents & how can fathers provide support. Notifications provided information regarding common questions
Shorey et al. (2019), Singapore	RCT pre/post/ follow-up	118, 50, 25	31.3	Prenatal-3 mo	Heterosexual married couples; ≥ 21 yr; English literate; low-risk single preg, ≥ 2 wks gest; phone with internet; reside in Singapore. No illness. Hospital	-	Phone-based sessions, app	Enhance parent self-efficacy, bonding, perceived social support, parent satisfaction; reduce depression & anxiety L&D: 4 wks	Midwife phone sessions; midwife forum	Parenting self-efficacy, Parental bonding, Postnatal depression, Postnatal anxiety, Parenting satisfaction, social support	1) phone antenatal education session (30 min); 2) Phone postnatal education session (60 min); 3) app topics: newborn & maternal self-care. Daily app notifications
Song et al. (2022), South Korea	Quasi-exp Pre/post/follow-up	20, 100, -	28.40	3–4 days	Chinese immigrant; > 19 yrs; first-time mothers; Korean literate. Obstetrics/ gynaecology clinics		Mobile-based via Prezi	Enhance maternal adjustment. L&D: 4 wks	Weekly support via social media	Parenting efficacy, Childcare stress, social support	Breastfeeding strategies. Newborn care
Zhang et al. (2023), China	RCT Pre/post/follow-up	80, 100, 16	30.36	38.27 wks gest	12–20 wks pregnant; ≥ 18 yrs; psychological distress; Chinese literate; no prior psychological int. WeChat access. Hospitals	GSH-MBI	SMS, WeChat app	Reduce psychological distress & improve infant neuropsychological performance. L&D: 6 wks	Daily text reminders	Maternal depression, Maternal anxiety, Infant temperament	6 modules including content on mindful breathing and body scan, mindfulness practices in everyday life
Zuckerman et al. (2022), USA	Quasi-exp Pre/post	29, 100, 3		–	Low-income mothers; =  < 1 prior children; full-term healthy birth, > 18 yrs; no substance abuse; English literate; iPhone owner. Nursery	Small Moments, Big Impact	App	Promote relational health, resilience, well-being. L&D: 6 mo	Support with content from researchers; Weekly text reminders	Parenting stress. Reflective functioning	Topics cover infant care, and mother’s self-care

In some cases, external references were used to identify specific program content. Attrition was based on comparison between pre-treatment and final follow-up periods only. ^†=based on prior program; ^{^} = pilot study; * = unpublished reference;

AU Australia; CAU care as usual; CBT cognitive behavioral therapy; CMT compassionate mind training; con control; f/u follow-up; f2f face-to-face; FAB fathers and babies; gest gestation; grp group; hr hour; int intervention; M mean; mo month; NICU neonatal intensive care unit; NZ New Zealand; PCIT parent–child interaction therapy; PP postpartum; PPD postpartum depression; pre-exp pre-experimental design; preg pregnancy; pub published journal article; quan quantitative study design; quasi-exp quasi-experimental design; QnA question & answer; RCT randomized control trial; SG self-guided; SMS short message service; SES socioeconomic status; USA United States of America; VLBW very low birth weight; wk week; WoM word of mother; yr year