Table 2.

Examples of cross-sector collaborations for NbS interventions in carbon sinks of Southeast Asia and the border relations that shape their transboundary governance

Project name/ funder/duration	Cross-sector arrangement by type/key stakeholders	Main NbS intervention/IUCN criterion	Project location* and border relation
Name: Grow Ahead Project Funder: Online donations (crowdfunding) Duration: Ongoing since December 1995	Type: Community-led societal-private partnership	Reforestation of native trees and biodiversity regeneration in integrated farms and community forests (criterion 3) Enhance food sovereignty through inclusive agroecological production (criteria 1, 4, 5, 6) Transmit intergenerational knowledge for adaptive climate capacities (criteria 3, 5, 7)	Project location: AOP operates across 30 provinces in Thailand
	Key stakeholders: Assembly of the Poor (AOP, unregistered Thai community organization) with small farmers, fishers and food producers		Border relation: (a) grassroots networks of subsistence farmers across (sub)national borders; (b) AOP is member of La Via Campesina international peasant organisation in Region of Southeast and East Asia (SEEA LVC)
Name: Oceanus Conservation Mangrove Restoration Project Funder: Online donations Duration: 2022 – 2027	Type: NGO-led multi-stakeholder partnership	Restoration, monitoring and avoided deforestation of mangroves for ecosystem co-benefits (criterion 3) Donations offset individual carbon footprints through mangrove replanting (criterion 4) Assists local government partner aims and nationwide greening programs (criterion 8) Educate, engage and employ community partners in science-based mangrove (re)planting and monitoring (criteria 4, 5, 7)	Project location: 240ha of mangrove forests across provinces of Surigao del Sur, La Union and Misamis Oriental, the Philippines
	Key stakeholders: Oceanus Conservation with Global Landscapes Forum, The Oceancy (sustainable tourism NGO), Synchonicity Earth (UK charity), local governments and mangrove communities in Philippines		Border relation: (a) Mangrove communities liaise with Oceanus, local government units and global and local NGOs; (b) Oceanus promoted through ASEAN-China Mangrove Conservation Network
Name: Internationale Klimaschutzinitiative/ International Climate Initiative (IKI) Seagrass Ecosystem Services Project (Southeast Asia component of multi-region project) Funder: Government of Germany (€4,780,000) Duration: 2019–2023	Type: Public-societal partnership	Community-led conservation of seagrass ecosystems and biodiversity (criteria 3, 5) Locally managed marine areas (LMMA) sustain fisheries and ecosystem health (criteria 1, 4, 6) Education for adaptive business models reduces pressure on marine resources (e.g.; spirulina farms, sustainable aquaculture, ecotourism homestays) (criteria 4, 5, 6, 7) Short-term spatial closures replenish fast-recovering marine taxa (criterion 6)	Project location: Multi-sited partnerships in five Southeast Asian Countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Timor-Leste, Thailand)
	Key stakeholders: German government (IKI) with YAPEKA (Indonesian NGO), Marecet (Malaysian NGO), Community Centred Conservation (C3) (Philippines NGO), Save Andaman Network (SAN) (Thai NGO), Blue Ventures (with NGOs in Timor-Leste)		Border relation: (a) Coastal communities with local and international NGOs; (b) implementation partners in Southeast Asia with German government
Name: Korea-Indonesia Forest Management Unit [FMU]/REDD + Joint Project Funding: Korean and Indonesian governments (1st phase), Korindo (2nd phase) Duration: 2013- 2015; follow-up monitoring: June 2019 – May 2020	Type: Bilateral multi-stakeholder partnership, implementation led by private company	Increased fire-fighting capacities FMU in unlicensed plantations brings wildfire/ air pollution reduction and biodiversity co-benefits (criteria 1, 3, 7) Aligns with national zero-burning policy in peatlands and international transboundary haze pollution legislation (criterion 8)	Project location: 14,743ha of unlicensed/ illegal peatland plantations in Kampar Peninsula, Riau, Indonesia
	Key stakeholders: Governments of South Korea and Indonesia, Korindo agribusiness, FMU (Forest Management Units), peatland communities		Border relation: (a) FMU liaise with surrounding peatland communities and local government agencies; (b) South Korean and Indonesian government partnership; (c) Korindo consultancy in Jakarta coordinates implementation with sub-national government agencies
Name: EFICAS (Eco-Friendly Intensification and Climate Friendly Ecosystems) Project Funding: (1) EU under Lao PDR Government’s Climate Change Alliance Program; (2) French Development Agency Duration: 2014 –2019	Type: Public sector-led multi-stakeholder partnership	Agroecological intercropping regenerates soil-based carbon and biodiversity (criterion 3) Engaging farming communities in participatory planning and implementation of climate-resilient agricultural transition (criterion 5, 8) Improve human nutritional status while maintaining soil fertility (criteria 1, 3) Builds adaptive capacities to cope with external stressors and shocks (criteria 1, 7)	Project location: Five provinces (Houaphan, Luang Prabang, Phongsaly, Sayabouri, Xieng Khouang) in Northern Laos
	Key stakeholders: Lao small farmers and their communities, Lao DPR Government agencies, EU, FDA, CIRA, Agrisud		Border relation: (a) Government of Lao DPR liaises with international funders; (b) Lao national government and five provincial governments; (c) Provincial coordinator and Village Land Management Committees (VLMC)

*Project locations are only approximate due to the limited availability in the public realm of data on the precise location of project boundaries. This ambiguity may have important consequences for border relations, especially in remote and rural areas where project boundaries may in reality appear arbitrary