Table 1.

Sources of exosomes and their roles in ulcerative colitis

Exosomes source	Pivotal molecules	Role of the exosomes	Conclusion	Ref.
Stem cell	miR-378a-5p	Inhibiting pyroptosis through NLRP3/caspase-1 signaling	Beneficial	[71]
Stem cell	miR-539-5p	Inhibiting pyroptosis through NLRP3/caspase-1 signaling	Beneficial	[72]
Stem cell	miRNA	Suppressing pyroptosis	Beneficial	[73]
Stem cell	miR-203a-3p.2	Suppressing macrophage pyroptosis induced by caspase11/4	Beneficial	[74]
Stem cell	NA	Regulating the Treg population	Beneficial	[75]
Stem cell	NA	Modulating the gut metagenomics-metabolomics-farnesoid X receptor axis	Beneficial	[76]
Stem cell	NA	Polarizing M2b macrophages	Beneficial	[77]
Stem cell	miR-146a	Inhibiting SUMO1 expression and its binding to β-catenin	Beneficial	[78]
Stem cell	miR-216a-5p	Inducing macrophage M2 polarization by regulating the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway	Beneficial	[79]
Stem cell	NA	Regulating the Th17/Treg balance	Beneficial	[80]
Stem cell	NA	Repairing intestinal barrier via TSG-6	Beneficial	[81]
Stem cell	miR-125a, miR-125b	Repressing Th17 cell differentiation	Beneficial	[82]
Stem cell	NA	Limiting intestinal epithelial cells reactive oxygen species accumulation and DNA damage through HIF-1α	Beneficial	[83]
Stem cell	miR-181a	Improving gut microbiota composition, barrier function, and inflammatory status	Beneficial	[84]
Stem cell	NA	Suppressing inflammation	Beneficial	[85]
Stem cell	NA	Modulating Th1/Th17 and Treg cell responses	Beneficial	[86]
Stem cell	NA	Attenuating inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis	Beneficial	[87]
Stem cell	NA	Stimulating epithelial repair and decreasing epithelial apoptosis	Beneficial	[88]
Stem cell	NA	Modulating the expression of IL-7 in macrophages	Beneficial	[89]
Stem cell	NA	Downregulating intestine ferroptosis	Beneficial	[90]
Melatonin and stem cell	NA	Suppressing inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and fibrosis	Beneficial	[91]
Dendritic Cell	miR-146a	Targeting Traf6, IRAK-1, and NLRP3 in macrophages	Beneficial	[92]
Dendritic cell	NA	Preventing colon damage	Beneficial	[93]
Dendritic cell	NA	Downregulating the expression of IL-2, IFN-γ and TNF-α	Beneficial	[94]
Dendritic cell	NA	Carrying drug to dendritic cell	Beneficial	[95]
M2 macrophage	miR-590-3p	Suppressing LATS1 and activating the YAP/β-catenin signaling	Beneficial	[96]
M1 macrophage	MiR-21a-5p	Decreasing E-cadherin and subsequent ILC2 activation	Unfavorable	[97]
Intestinal	NA	Promoting wound healing	Beneficial	[98]
Visceral adipose tissue	miR-155	Promoting macrophage M1 polarization	Unfavorable	[99]
Serum	NA	Inhibiting MCP-1 and MIP-1α expression via NLRP12-Notch signaling pathway	Beneficial	[100]
Serum	Proteins	Implicating macrophage activation	NA	[101]
Helicobacter pylori	NA	Aggravating intestinal epithelium barrier dysfunction by facilitating Claudin-2 expression	Unfavorable	[102]
Milk	NA	Suppressing inflammation	Beneficial	[103]
Cow and human milk	miRNA-320, 375, and Let-7	Downregulating DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and DNMT3	Beneficial	[104]
Bovine colostrum	NA	Suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress	Beneficial	[105]

NA: Not available.