Table 2.

Mouse models in the research of GCA pathogenesis.

Animal Model	Mechanism of Action	Limitations	Ref, Year
Human artery engraft	in NOD-SCID mice	leakage, spontaneous thymomas, very short lifespans	[212], 1997 [185], 2017
Induction of arteritis through administration of TLRs and activation of adventitial DCs	at the vasa vasorum	technically challenging for rodents	[214], 2022 [215], 2003
	at perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT)	involvement in atherosclerosis, speculation for GCA pathogenesis	[219], 2022 [220], 2000 [221], 2005
Induction of arterial injury through arterial cuffing	in genetically modified atherosclerosis-prone mice	speculation for GCA pathogenesis	[216], 2002
	in IBP-deficient or IL-1Ra deficient mice	not sufficient to initiate pan-arteritis	[217], 2003 [218], 2014
Induction of arterial injury through intraluminal balloon	in atherosclerotic mice	tested in mouse and rat models of atherosclerosis, speculation for GCA pathogenesis	[222], 2007
Modified arteritis-prone models	IL1-A deficiency mice upon artery injury	arteritis development is dependent on the genetic background	[223], 2005
	or IL25 administration	speculation for GCA pathogenesis	[224], 2019
	IBP-deficient mice with TCR specific to OVA peptides	speculation for GCA pathogenesis	[225], 2008
Infection-related chronic vasculitis	IFNg-receptor-deficient mice infected with γ-herpes virus 68	IFNg signaling deficiency not investigated in LVV patients	[226], 2001 [227], 1998