Figure 5.

Pathogenic bacteria are able to adhere, engage, enter, and hijack host cell responses via the sphingolipid pathway. In addition to S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli, Helicobacter pylori [274], Neisseria meningitis [275,276], Clostridium botulinum [277,278], Mycobacterium tuberculosis [279,280], Chlamydia psittaci [281], Bacillus cereus [282], Burkolderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia thailandensis [283,284], and Legionella pneumophila [285] are pathogens able to infect bone or that have been reported within the bone marrow. Chlamydia trochomatis is a notorious pathogen able to avoid destruction and persist within host cells [286], and is associated with reactive RA [287]. These bacteria target host cell sphingolipid enzymes either directly (red) or indirectly (green). Image adapted from Rolando et al. [266].