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Canonical and non-canonical downstream pathways of TGF-β. In the canonical pathway, the SMAD 2/3 are phosphorylated via TGF-β, thus translocating into the nucleus and regulating gene transcription. The non-canonical pathway activates downstream cascades like MAPK/ERK via various post-translational modifications. Both these pathways ultimately result in epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), therefore they promote cancer. Created with BioRender.com, accessed on 28 June 2023.
