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. 2024 Mar 12;15:2219. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-46554-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a Patient-derived pluripotent stem cells can provide relevant insights into ND pathophysiology. b 3D culture-on-a-chip combines the in vivo relevant characteristics of patient-derived 3D cultures (neurospheroids, organoids, and assembloids) and the unique engineering possibilities of microfluidic chips that can model interconnected brain regions and multi-organs. c Microfluidic-based, patient-derived in vitro ND models will contribute to drug discovery and preclinical drug development studies by replacing the animal models with the promise of personalised treatment. ND neurodegenerative disease.