Table 1.
In vitro preclinical effects of ginger extracts and ginger’s active compounds on fibroblast-like synoviocytes and chondrocytes.
| Type of Extract/Active Compound | Dose | Type of Cells | Results | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| EV.EXT®77 (Z. officinale, A. galanga) | 1 mg/mL | FLSs from healthy patients or patients with RA and OA | ↓IL-8 similarly to betamethasone | [71] |
| EV.EXT®77 (Z. officinale, A. galanga) | 100 µg/mL | FLSs from patients with OA | ↓activation of TNF-α and COX-2 expression, ↓synthesis of PGE2 and TNF-α, and ↓induction of NF-κB and IκB-α | [72] |
| Z. officinale and A. galanga combined extracts | 100 µg/mL | FLSs from patients with OA | ↓chemokines, ↓MCP-1, and ↓IP-10; the immunosuppressive effect of combined extracts were higher than either extract alone |
[73] |
| Zingerone | 20–40 µM | SW1353 cell culture and explanted cells from pig cartilage | ↓MMP-13 ↓expression of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8 mRNA levels |
[74] |
| Zingerone | 5–20 µM | FLSs from rats with collagen-induced arthritis | Inhibition of cell proliferation and migration; ↓ROS formation, and ↓ expression of IL-1β and IL-6 transcripts |
[75] |
| 6-shogaol | 5, 10, 20, 40 µM | FLSs and MH7A cell lines from patients with RA | Apoptosis of FLSs and MH7A cells and inhibition of their migration and proliferation; ↓synthesis of MMP-2, MMP-9, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α |
[76] |
| Cedrol | 1, 5, 10 µM | FLSs from mice with collagen-induced arthritis | Downregulation of ERK/MAPK and p65 NF-κB activation, ↓MMP-13, ↓MCP-1, and ↓expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-1, and COX-2 |
[77] |
| Z. officinale extract in DMSO | 5, 25 µg/mL | C28I2 human chondrocyte cells | ↓ROS, ↓lipid peroxidation, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and capsase-3 activity; boosted mRNA expression of genes related to SOD1, GPX1, GPX2, GPX4, and CAT | [79] |
| Z. officinale aqueous extract (Aquaresin ginger) | 10–100 µg/mL | Healthy and osteoarthritic chondrocytes isolated from sow cartilage explants | ↓PGE2 and NO (doses > 10 g/mL) in OA chondrocytes and, at low concentrations, in normal chondrocytes | [80] |
| 6-shogaol | 5 µM | Human chondrocyte cells | ↓MCP-1 and IL-6 ↓ MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity |
[81] |
↓—indicates decreased concentration, synthesis or inhibition of processes; CAT—catalase; COX-1—cyclooxygenase-1; COX-2—cyclooxygenase-2; ERK—extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FLSs—fibroblast-like synoviocyte cells; GPX—glutathione peroxidase; IκB-alfa—nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, alpha; IP-10—interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 kD; MAPK—mitogen-activated protein kinases; MCP-1—monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MMP—matrix metalloproteinase; NF-κB—nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; OA—osteoarthritis; PGE2—prostaglandin E2; RA- rheumatoid arthritis; ROS—reactive oxygen species; SOD1—superoxide dismutase type 1; and TNFα—tumor necrosis factor-alpha.