Table 1.
Sample Characteristics for Those Testing for SARS-CoV-2 at Walgreens Pharmacies Between 15 September 2022 and 31 January 2023, Overall and by SARS-CoV-2 Testing Status (n = 307 855)
| Characteristic | Total | SARS-CoV-2 Positive | SARS-CoV-2 Negative | Positivity | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. (%) | No. (%) | No. (%) | % | P Valuea | |
| Total | 307 885 (8.76) | 118 706 (21.06) | 189 024 (70.18) | 38.56 | |
| Age, y | |||||
| 5–11 | 7916 (2.57) | 1611 (1.36) | 6305 (3.33) | 20.35 | <.0001b |
| 12–17 | 16 329 (5.30) | 4132 (3.48) | 12 197 (6.45) | 25.30 | <.0001b |
| ≥18 | 283 640 (92.13) | 112 963 (95.16) | 170 677 (90.22) | 39.83 | <.0001c |
| 18–49 | 190 921 (62.01) | 70 456 (59.35) | 120 465 (63.68) | 36.90 | Ref |
| 50–64 | 57 448 (18.66) | 26 593 (22.40) | 30 855 (16.31) | 46.29 | <.0001b |
| ≥65 | 35 271 (11.46) | 15 914 (13.41) | 19 357 (10.23) | 45.12 | <.0001b |
| Mean (SD) | 40.26 (18.00) | 43.10 (17.77) | 38.48 (17.92) | <.0001 | |
| Gender | |||||
| Female | 184 892 (60.05) | 67 980 (57.27) | 116 912 (61.80) | 36.77 | <.0001 |
| Male | 122 031 (39.64) | 50 436 (42.49) | 71 595 (37.85) | 41.33 | Ref |
| Other | 962 (0.31) | 290 (0.24) | 672 (0.36) | 30.15 | <.0001 |
| Race/ethnicity | |||||
| Hispanic/any race | 63 091 (20.49) | 24 553 (20.68) | 38 538 (20.37) | 38.92 | .6793 |
| Asian/non-Hispanic or Latino | 22 535 (7.32) | 9386 (7.91) | 13 149 (6.95) | 41.65 | .0006 |
| Black or African American/non-Hispanic or Latino | 46 710 (15.17) | 16 637 (14.02) | 30 073 (15.90) | 35.62 | .0204 |
| Native/non-Hispanic or Latinod | 2932 (0.95) | 1073 (0.90) | 1859 (0.98) | 36.60 | .2609 |
| White/non-Hispanic or Latino | 152 388 (49.50) | 59 229 (49.90) | 93 159 (49.24) | 38.87 | Ref |
| Decline to answer | 20 229 (6.57) | 7828 (6.59) | 12 401 (6.56) | 38.70 | .7967 |
| Currently pregnant? | |||||
| No | 224 984 (73.07) | 85 340 (71.89) | 139 644 (73.82) | 37.93 | Ref |
| Yes | 4287 (1.39) | 1543 (1.30) | 2744 (1.45) | 35.99 | .0026 |
| Does not apply | 78 614 (25.53) | 31 823 (26.81) | 46 791 (24.73) | 40.48 | <.0001 |
| Recent close contact with someone diagnosed with or presumed to have COVID-19 | |||||
| No | 176 854 (57.44) | 63 607 (53.58) | 113 247 (59.86) | 35.97 | Ref |
| Yes | 131 031 (42.56) | 55 099 (46.42) | 75 932 (40.14) | 42.05 | <.0001 |
| Chronic conditions reported | |||||
| At least 1 | 112 905 (36.67) | 46 771 (39.40) | 66 134 (34.96) | 41.43 | <.0001e |
| Chronic lung disease, eg, COPD, moderate to severe asthma, cystic fibrosis, or pulmonary embolism | 14 365 (4.67) | 4971 (4.19) | 9394 (4.97) | 34.60 | <.0001 |
| Cirrhosis of the liver | 574 (0.19) | 226 (0.19) | 348 (0.18) | 39.37 | .7132 |
| Current or former smoker | 27 522 (8.94) | 11 484 (9.67) | 16 038 (8.48) | 41.73 | <.0001 |
| Diabetes | 23 095 (7.50) | 9956 (8.39) | 13 139 (6.95) | 43.11 | <.0001 |
| Heart condition | 15 410 (5.01) | 6365 (5.36) | 9045 (4.78) | 41.30 | <.0001 |
| High blood pressure | 56 970 (18.50) | 25 061 (21.11) | 31 909 (16.87) | 43.99 | <.0001 |
| Overweight or obesity | 47 410 (15.40) | 18 992 (16.00) | 28 418 (15.02) | 40.06 | <.0001 |
| Kidney failure or end-stage renal disease | 1409 (0.46) | 605 (0.51) | 804 (0.42) | 42.94 | <.0001 |
| None | 194 980 (63.33) | 71 935 (60.60) | 123 045 (65.04) | 36.89 | |
| Number of condition(s) reported | |||||
| 0 | 194 980 (63.33) | 71 935 (60.60) | 123 045 (64.04) | 36.89 | Ref |
| 1 | 64 287 (20.88) | 26 399 (22.24) | 37 888 (20.03) | 41.06 | <.0001 |
| 2 | 30 349 (9.86) | 12 697 (10.70) | 17 652 (9.33) | 41.84 | <.0001 |
| ≥ 3 | 18 269 (5.93) | 7675 (6.47) | 10 594 (5.60) | 42.01 | <.0001 |
| Symptoms reported | |||||
| Low-grade fever, <102°F | 107 854 (35.03) | 52 651 (44.35) | 55 203 (29.18) | 48.82 | <.0001 |
| Chills | 109 231 (35.48) | 53 936 (45.44) | 55 295 (29.23) | 49.38 | <.0001 |
| Fatigue | 159 834 (51.91) | 65 711 (55.36) | 94 123 (49.75) | 41.11 | <.0001 |
| Headache | 178 744 (58.06) | 73 383 (61.82) | 105 361 (55.69) | 41.05 | <.0001 |
| Muscle pain | 113 489 (36.86) | 52 037 (43.84) | 61 452 (32.48) | 45.85 | <.0001 |
| Congestion/runny nose | 188 160 (61.11) | 78 515 (66.14) | 109 645 (57.96) | 41.73 | <.0001 |
| New loss of taste or smell | 29 915 (9.72) | 12 816 (10.80) | 17 099 (9.04) | 42.84 | <.0001 |
| Sore throat | 185 864 (60.37) | 76 239 (64.23) | 109 625 (57.95) | 41.02 | <.0001 |
| New or worsening cough | 218 845 (71.08) | 95 164 (80.17) | 123 681 (65.38) | 43.48 | <.0001 |
| Shortness of breath/difficulty breathing, not severe | 61 023 (19.82) | 22 797 (19.20) | 38 226 (20.21) | 37.36 | <.0001 |
| Diarrhea | 38 683 (12.56) | 13 807 (11.63) | 24 876 (13.15) | 35.69 | <.0001 |
| Vomiting | 18 988 (6.17) | 6322 (5.33) | 12 666 (6.70) | 33.29 | <.0001 |
| SARS-CoV-2 test type | |||||
| PCR | 99 490 (32.31) | 40 430 (34.06) | 59 060 (31.22) | 40.64 | Ref |
| Rapid NAAT | 208 395 (67.69) | 78 276 (65.94) | 130 119 (68.78) | 37.56 | .0008 |
| Original wild-type vaccination history | |||||
| Unvaccinated | 64 846 (21.06) | 21 417 (18.04) | 43 429 (22.96) | 33.03 | Ref |
| 2 doses only | 110 560 (35.91) | 42 321 (35.65) | 68 239 (36.07) | 38.28 | <.0001f,g |
| ≥ 3 doses | 132 479 (43.03) | 54 968 (46.31) | 77 511 (40.97) | 41.49 | <.0001f |
| 3 doses only | 109 141 (35.45) | 44 992 (37.90) | 64 149 (33.91) | 41.22 | <.0001g |
| 4 doses only | 23 338 (7.58) | 9976 (8.40) | 13 362 (7.06) | 42.75 | <.0001g |
| Months since last original wild-type doseh | |||||
| 2–6 | 29 224 (12.02) | 11 048 (11.36) | 18 176 (12.47) | 37.80 | <.0001 |
| ≥ 7 | 213 815 (87.98) | 86 241 (88.64) | 127 574 (87.53) | 40.33 | Ref |
| BA.4/5 bivalent vaccination status | |||||
| Did not receive bivalent vaccine | 280 924 (91.24) | 109 798 (92.50) | 171 126 (90.46) | 39.08 | <.0001i |
| ≥ 2 original wild-type doses but no bivalent vaccine | 216 078 (70.18) | 88 381 (74.45) | 127 697 (67.50) | 40.90 | <.0001j |
| Unvaccinated | 64 846 (21.06) | 21 417 (18.04) | 43 429 (22.96) | 33.03 | .8149j |
| Prior SARS-CoV-2 infection | <.0001 | ||||
| No | 174 591 (56.71) | 83 362 (70.23) | 91 229 (48.22) | 47.75 | Ref |
| Yes, > 3 mo agok | 133 294 (43.29) | 35 344 (29.77) | 97 950 (51.78) | 26.52 | <.0001 |
| Average weekly incidence rate (per 100 000) in participating counties over study period, mean (SD) | 109.77 (60.55) | 114.00 (60.75) | 107.10 (60.28) | NA | <.0001 |
| Average store-specific percent positivity (No. of tests in a store, divided by the store trade area’s population size) in participating stores over study period, mean (SD) | 38.56 (29.43) | 61.02 (25.05) | 24.46 (22.37) | NA | <.0001 |
| US census region | <.0001 | ||||
| Midwest | 80 982 (26.30) | 31 397 (26.45) | 49 585 (26.21) | 38.77 | |
| Northeast | 36 187 (11.75) | 15 098 (12.72) | 21 089 (11.15) | 41.72 | |
| South | 130 215 (42.29) | 47 870 (40.33) | 82 345 (43.53) | 36.76 | |
| West | 60 501 (19.65) | 24 341 (20.51) | 36 160 (19.11) | 40.23 | |
| Rural/urban area of pharmacy trade region | |||||
| Rural | 76 298 (24.78) | 29 675 (25.00) | 46 623 (24.64) | 38.89 | .9519 |
| Suburban | 206 825 (67.18) | 79 208 (66.73) | 127 617 (67.46) | 38.30 | .5471 |
| Urban | 24 762 (8.04) | 9823 (8.28) | 14 939 (7.90) | 39.67 | Ref |
| Area deprivation index of pharmacy, mean (SD) | 58.51 (28.49) | 58.24 (28.37) | 58.67 (28.56) | NA | .9851 |
| Average store-specific testing volume per 100 persons in pharmacy trade area over study period, mean (SD) | 0.26 (0.16) | 0.27 (0.16) | 0.26 (0.16) | NA | <.0001 |
Abbreviations: COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; NAAT, nucleic acid amplification test; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; NA, Not Applicable; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient.
aStatistical significance was assessed using bivariate generalized estimating equations logistic regression models that clustered on US Census region of pharmacy to account for Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) by Walgreens pharmacy region.
bComparing categories: 5–11, 12–17, 18–49, 50–64, and ≥65 years.
cComparing categories: ≥ 18 vs <18 years.
dIncludes American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Other Pacific Islander.
eComparing categories: any chronic conditions vs no chronic conditions.
fComparing categories: unvaccinated, 2 doses only, ≥3 doses.
gComparing unvaccinated, 2 doses, 3 doses, and 4 doses.
hBecause only month and year are available for vaccine doses, 2–6 months may include some patients who were vaccinated 7 months ago; 7–11 months may include some patients who were vaccinated 6 or 12 months ago.
iComparing categories: did vs did not receive bivalent vaccine.
jCompared with receipt of the bivalent vaccine.
kHistory of prior COVID-19 infection included the following response options: No; Yes, within the last week; Yes, 1 week to 3 months ago; and Yes, >3 months ago. Those indicating a prior COVID-19 infection within the last week or 1 week to 3 months ago were excluded from the analysis. This variable represents self-reported prior COVID-19 infection >3 months ago (yes vs no).