TABLE I.

Effects of SMFs on bone regeneration. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs); periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs); Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stem cells (WJMSCs); mandibular condylar chondrocytes (MCCs); and N/A, not available.

Objects			Magnetic flux density	Magnetic field direction	Exposure time	Effects on cell proliferation and differentiation	Effects	References
In vitro	Humans	BMSCs	3, 15, and 50 mT	Upward	21 days	Promotion	Promoted proliferation and osteoblast differentiation of human BMSCs	18
			50, 100, and 150 mT	Perpendicular	12 h/day, 14 days		Promoted osteogenic differentiation of cells	19
			100 mT	Upward	28 days		Enhanced cell viability, DNA synthesis, and led to early transformation of the osteogenic lineage supported by Runx2 and ALP expression	20
				Perpendicular	12 h/day, 1, 4, 7, and 14 days		Enhanced cell viability, proliferation and adhesion, improved cell morphology, and promoted osteogenic differentiation, possibly due to upregulation of the BMP-Smads signaling pathway	33
			100, 200, 400, and 600 mT		7, 14, and 21 days		Induction of chondrogenesis in BMSCs via TGF-β-dependent pathway	21
		PDLSCs	320 mT	N/A	14 days		Activation of the phosphorylated AKT pathway to enhance proliferation and osteogenic differentiation	24
		WJMSCs	400 mT				Increased matrix vesicle secretion and mineralization, enhanced osteogenic differentiation, but no effect on cell viability and growth	34
		Chondrocytes	3 T		1 and 96 h	Inhibition	Suppressed cell growth and induced apoptosis through p53, p21, p27, and Bax protein expression	25
	Rats	Calvaria cell	160 mT	N/A	20 days	Promotion	The values of the total area and the number and average size of bone nodules showed high levels, the calcium content in the matrix and alkaline phosphatase and OCN also showed a significant increase	14
		Mandibular BMSCs/MCCs	280 mT	Vertical	14 days		Improved chondrogenesis and proliferation of Mandibular BMSC in the co-culture system	22
		MCCs		N/A			Enhanced differentiation through FLRT/BMP signaling	23
	Mice	Osteoblast MC3T3-E1	500 nT, 200 mT, and 16 T	Upward and downward	10 days	Promotion/inhibition	16 T SMF increased osteoblast differentiation, 500 nT and 200 mT SMFs decreased osteoblast differentiation	12
		Raw264.7		N/A			500 nT and 200 mT SMFs promoted the differentiation, formation, and resorption of osteoclast Raw264.7, whereas a 16 T SMF acted as an inhibitor	13
			1–2 T		4 days	Inhibition	Osteoclast formation in the presence of Ferumoxytol was reduced	15
		Osteoblast MC3T3-E1	8 T	Parallel	14 days	Promotion	Stimulated bone formation to grow in the direction of the magnetic field	16
					60 h			17
In vivo	Rats	Whole animal	4 mT	⋯	16 weeks		Prevented bone architectural deterioration and strength reduction	30
			30–200 mT	Parallel	12 weeks		Increased bone density and bone area	31
			100 mT	N/A	12 h/day, 6 and 12 weeks		Enhanced bone regeneration and osseointegration	19
			180 mT		6 weeks		Significantly increased bone mineral density	32
					12 weeks		Prevented the decrease in bone mineral density	26
	Mice		200 mT	Alternating magnetic poles	2 weeks		Stimulated chondrogenesis, enhanced the cellular matrix of cartilage and increased endogenous stem cell migration	27
			200–400 mT	Downward	4 weeks		Increased of bone resorption in reloaded mice	28
			2–4 T	N/A	28 days		Promoted bone formation, increased osteoblasts, and reduced the number of osteoclasts	29