Table 2. Measured kinematics and contractile properties for the second stroke after takeoff.

Positive yaw angle corresponds with the dove yawing to the left. The advance ratio is forward translational velocity divided by wingtip velocity as in Ellington, 1984 (N = 4 doves; n = 5 flights each).

Variable	Mean ± SD
Flight speed (m/s)	1.23 ± 0.13
Downstroke length (ms)	61.80 ± 4.73
Upstroke length (ms)	40.65 ± 3.88
Flapping frequency (Hz)	9.80 ± 0.62
Yaw angle (°)	1.62 ± 6.33
Advance ratio (-)	0.14 ± 0.01
Max pectoralis strain (ε)	0.23 ± 0.01
Max pectoralis velocity (m/s)	0.24 ± 0.04