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. 2024 Mar 17;14:6406. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-56859-9

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Estimated means (± 95% CI) for heart rate (bpm), heart rate variability measured using RMSSD (ms), PC1_Valence, PC2_Arousal, and blood serum cortisol (ng/mL) following test scenarios anticipated to produce positive valence responses varying in arousal (high vs low) and food provision (no food vs food provided). These scenarios included those anticipated to produce positive valence low arousal without food (calm petting), positive valence high arousal without food (toy play), positive valence low arousal with food (chew), and positive valence high arousal with food (treat-throwing). ** indicates a significant difference of p < 0.010. *** indicates a significant difference of p < 0.001.