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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Psychopathol Clin Sci. 2024 Jan;133(1):20–36. doi: 10.1037/abn0000871

Table 1.

Sample Sociodemographic Characteristics

Sociodemographic characteristic 1990s 2000s 2010s
k % (95% CI) k % (95% CI) k % (95% CI)
Continent 373/374 99.73% (97.95%, 99.97%) 413/417 99.04% (97.47%, 99.64%) 451/453 99.56% (98.25%, 99.89%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 1.63, p = .442
Proportion Africa 1 0.27% (0.04%, 1.88%) 1 0.24% (0.03%, 2.06%) 1 0.22% (0.03%, 1.75%)
QB(2) = 0.02, p = .992
Proportion Asia 8 2.14% (1.08%, 4.23%) 7 1.69% (0.81%, 3.51%) 10 2.22% (1.20%, 4.08%)
QB(2) = 0.34, p = .845
Proportion Europe 48 12.87% (9.84%, 16.67%) 84 20.34% (16.73%, 24.50%) 89 19.73% (16.30%, 23.69%)
QB(2) = 8.98, p = .011
Proportion North America 288 77.21% (71.64%, 81.97%) 309 74.82% (70.30%, 78.86%) 330 73.17% (68.67%, 77.24%)
QB(2) = 1.40, p = .497
Proportion Oceania 28 7.51% (5.16%, 10.79%) 11 2.66% (1.48%, 4.74%) 19 4.21% (2.70%, 6.51%)
QB(2) = 9.65, p = .008
Proportion South America 0 0.00% (0.00%, 100.00%) 1 0.24% (0.03%, 1.70%) 2 0.44% (0.11%, 1.76%)
QB(2) = 0.23, p = .892
Age/developmental stage 338/374 90.37% (86.94%, 92.98%) 400/417 95.92% (93.54%, 97.45%) 442/453 97.57% (95.66%, 98.65%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 20.73, p < .001
Proportion infancy/preschool 8 2.52% (1.27%, 4.97%) 7 1.87% (0.89%, 3.87%) 12 2.83% (1.60%, 4.96%)
QB(2) = 0.78, p = .679
Proportion childhood 31 9.78% (6.90%, 13.69%) 31 8.29% (5.89%, 11.55%) 60 14.15% (10.73%, 18.44%)
QB(2) = 6.42, p = .040
Proportion adolescence 26 8.20% (5.46%, 12.14%) 51 13.64% (10.52%, 17.50%) 45 10.61% (8.02%, 13.92%)
QB(2) = 4.77, p = .092
Proportion emerging adulthood 62 19.56% (13.32%, 27.78%) 58 15.51% (12.18%, 19.54%) 60 14.15% (11.14%, 17.81%)
QB(2) = 2.04, p = .361
Proportion adulthood 186 58.68% (52.65%, 64.46%) 222 59.36% (54.30%, 64.23%) 245 57.78% 53.023%, 62.40%)
QB(2) = 0.20, p = .903
Proportion older adulthood 4 1.26% (0.47%, 3.32%) 5 1.34% (0.48%, 3.63%) 2 0.47% (0.08%, 2.74%)
QB(2) = 1.09, p = .579
Sex/gender 341/374 91.18% (87.85%, 93.66%) 387/417 92.81% (89.90%, 94.92%) 439/453 96.91% (94.85%, 98.16%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 11.78, p = .003
Proportion female 341 48.49% (40.15%, 56.92%) 387 46.13% (37.74%, 54.74%) 439 62.14% (55.14%, 68.66%)
QB(2) = 9.96, p = .007
Psychopathology group 154 29.91% (18.99%, 43.72%) 161 52.56% (43.19%, 61.75%) 171 55.07% (46.27%, 63.57%)
QB(2) = 9.32, p = .009
Comparison group 154 33.59% (22.27%, 47.18%) 161 53.60% (44.61%, 62.36%) 171 56.54% (48.23%, 64.51%)
QB(2) = 8.16, p = .017
Sexual orientation 6/374 1.60% (0.72%, 3.52%) 3/417 0.72% (0.23%, 2.21%) 7/453 1.55% (0.75%, 3.14%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 1.52, p = .467
Gender identity 0/374 0.00% (0.00%, 100.00%) 0/417 0.00% (0.00%, 100.00%) 1/453 0.22% (0.03%, 1.55%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 0.00, p = .999
Socioeconomic status 65/374 17.38% (13.87%, 21.56%) 96/417 23.02% (19.23%, 27.31%) 109/453 24.06% (20.35%, 28.21%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 5.98, p = .050
Educational attainment 177/374 47.33% (42.31%, 52.40%) 213/417 51.08% (46.27%, 55.87%) 202/453 44.59% (40.03%, 49.24%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 3.63, p = .163
Race 157/374 41.98% (36.91%, 47.22%) 254/417 60.91% (56.14%, 65.48%) 288/453 63.58% (58.87%, 68.04%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 40.93, p < .001
Proportion reporting American Indian 14/157 8.92% (5.35%, 14.50%) 38/254 14.96% (10.57%, 20.74%) 51/289 17.65% (13.67%, 22.48%)
QB(2) = 5.99, p = .050
Proportion American Indian 13 1.23% (0.72%, 2.08%) 38 0.96% (0.72%, 1.29%) 49 0.62% (0.46%, 0.85%)
QB(2) = 6.26, p = .044
  Psychopathology group 1 2.50% (0.35%, 15.73%) 5 1.12% (0.41%, 3.05%) 11 1.60% (0.86%, 2.94%)
QB(2) = 0.62, p = .733
  Comparison group 1 0.00% (0.00%, 100.00%) 5 0.73% (0.14%, 3.64%) 11 0.27% (0.04%, 1.87%)
QB(2) = 0.58, p = .747
Proportion reporting Asian 38/157 24.20% (18.13%, 31.53%) 79/254 31.10% (25.70%, 37.07%) 111/289 38.41% (32.95%, 44.17%)
QB(2) = 9.57, p = .008
Proportion Asian 37 6.31% (3.78%, 10.35%) 76 3.83% (2.60%, 5.61%) 110 4.60% (3.89%, 5.43%)
QB(2) = 2.35, p = .309
  Psychopathology group 5 3.23% (0.67%, 14.16%) 15 5.86% (2.33%, 13.96%) 25 5.12% (3.31%, 7.84%)
QB(2) = 0.43, p = .806
  Comparison group 5 2.49% (0.36%, 15.18%) 15 4.38% (1.57%, 11.65%) 25 7.88% (5.25%, 11.64%)
QB(2) = 2.36, p = .307
Proportion reporting Black 74/157 47.13% (39.45%, 54.95%) 167/254 65.75% (59.70%, 71.33%) 205/289 70.93% (65.42%, 75.89%)
QB(2) = 22.37, p < .001
Proportion Black 71 13.87% (10.40%, 18.26%) 164 13.61% (11.24%, 16.38%) 202 16.03% (13.56%, 18.86%)
QB(2) = 1.87, p = .393
  Psychopathology group 10 7.97% (2.34%, 23.82%) 26 15.27% (10.30%, 22.04%) 46 21.39% (15.20%, 29.22%)
QB(2) = 3.74, p = .154
  Comparison group 10 22.00% (4.01%, 65.59%) 26 12.78% (8.26%, 19.26%) 46 18.42% (11.78%, 27.64%)
QB(2) = 1.61, p = .447
Proportion reporting Pacific Islander 1/157 0.64% (0.09%, 4.47%) 4/254 1.57% (0.59%, 4.12%) 18/289 6.23% (3.96%, 9.67%)
QB(2) = 10.44, p = .054
Proportion Pacific Islander 1 6.89% (5.18%, 9.11%) 4 1.04% (0.34%, 3.13%) 17 0.76% (0.52%, 1.11%)
QB(2) = 86.21, p < .001
  Psychopathology group 0 - 0 - 2 -
  Comparison group 0 - 0 - 2 -
Proportion reporting White 144/157 91.72% (76.84%, 97.37%) 243/254 95.67% (92.27%, 97.61%) 269/289 93.08% (89.52%, 95.49%)
QB(2) = 1.94, p = .379
Proportion White 130 83.72% (79.92%, 86.92%) 237 78.75% (75.54%, 81.65%) 261 73.87% (71.09%, 76.47%)
QB(2) = 17.57, p < .001
  Psychopathology group 27 89.16% (81.27%, 93.97%) 55 75.74% (68.85%, 81.52%) 71 67.27% (63.47%, 70.87%)
QB(2) = 19.73, p < .001
  Comparison group 27 89.30% (80.94%, 94.25%) 55 77.92% (70.83%, 83.68%) 71 66.82% (62.10%, 71.23%)
QB(2) = 19.72, p < .001
Ethnicity 60/347 16.04% (12.66%, 20.12%) 121/417 29.02% (24.86%, 33.56%) 138/453 30.46% (26.40%, 34.85%)
Proportion of studies reporting QB(2) = 25.29, p < .001
Proportion Hispanic/Latino 56 6.93% (5.02%, 9.49%) 121 6.37% (5.09%, 7.94%) 135 7.77% (6.70%, 8.99%)
QB(2) = 2.25, p = .324
  Psychopathology group 7 3.59% (1.00%, 12.03%) 14 3.62% (1.68%, 7.62%) 24 9.37% (7.62%, 11.48%)
QB(2) = 7.84, p = .020
  Comparison group 7 3.39% (0.69%, 15.07%) 14 4.39% (1.98%, 9.44%) 25 7.78% (5.75%, 10.45%)
QB(2) = 2.72, p = .257

Note. Statistics for reporting and proportion of sample sociodemographic characteristics within each sampling time frame. For each set of studies, each analysis yielded an overall mean point estimate (presented as percentages) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) within each sampling time frame. k is the number of studies included in each analysis. k/k indicates the number of studies that reported on the sociodemographic characteristic out of the total number of studies, and k indicates the number of studies that reported on the proportion of participants for the sociodemographic characteristic. The QB statistic indicated whether were significant differences in point estimates across sampling time frames; point estimates for one sampling time frame or sociodemographic characteristic that fell outside the 95% CI for another were considered to be meaningfully different from one another.