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Bioreactors used for exogenous ES application. The alternating current (AC) bioreactor contains parallel platinum electrodes spaced about 3.4 cm apart in a standard 8-well plate. The direct current (DC) bioreactor is made up of a conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate with surface electrodes epoxied about 3.4 cm apart, on the outside of a rectangular nylon well.
