Table 2.

Maladaptive exercise features and their definitions.

Feature	Definition	N Instruments Featured (out of 15)
Avoid negative affect	Engagement in exercise to avoid anticipated negative emotions (e.g., guilt; anxiety; worry) if one did not engage in the exercise.	9
Weight/shape control	Engagement in exercise with the aim of altering one’s weight/shape or protecting against anticipated weight gain/shape changes if one did not exercise.	9
Compensate for calories	Engagement in exercise to compensate for, or “work-off” calories consumed.	8
Rigid/Routine	Engagement in exercise in accordance with a strict schedule/routine.	7
Decrease negative affect	Engagement in exercise with the aim of reducing negative emotions/distress.	6
Appearance	Engagement in exercise to alter or maintain the way one looks to others. Not specific to weight/shape.	6
Increase positive affect	Engagement in exercise with the aim of increasing positive emotional experiences (e.g., via endorphins or self-efficacy/confidence)	5
Obligation	Engagement in exercise because one feels one must or should (e.g., to adhere to a regimen).	5
Frequency	The frequency with which one engages in exercise over a given amount of time.	5
Physical consequences	Engagement in exercise despite experiencing or risking negative physical ramifications (e.g., injury; illness; overtraining).	5
Psychosocial consequences	Engagement in exercise despite experiencing or risking negative psychosocial ramifications (e.g., negatively impacting relationships; lack of socialization)	5
Athletic achievement/goal attainment	Engagement in exercise motivated by a sense of accomplishment via working toward or meeting personal/athletic benchmarks.	4
Decrease/avoid physical discomfort	Engagement in exercise with the goal of reducing or avoiding physical discomfort (e.g., bloating; feelings of fatness) which would otherwise be experienced.	4
Health improvement/ maintenance	Engagement in exercise with the aim of improving or maintaining one’s physical/mental health.	4
Building physical ability/skill/function	Exercise engagement with the aim of maintaining or advancing one’s physical abilities, skills, or overall functional capabilities.	4
Social engagement	Engagement in exercise as a way to spend time/connect with other people.	4
Perseveration/Rumination	Having thoughts/preoccupation/daydreams about exercise when one is not actively engaged in exercising.	3
Restlessness	Feeling “fidgety” or like one needs to be moving at all times.	3
Cognitive enhancement	Engagement in exercise with the aim of improving one’s cognitive ability or focus.	3
Enjoyment	The enjoyment one gets from exercise engagement.	3
Social desirability	Engagement in exercise with the aim of being considered valuable or interesting to others.	3
Pre-compensation	Engagement in exercise to compensate for calories/food one anticipates consuming at a later time.	2
Compulsion	In response to insistent urges, a subjective experience of exercise as activity that is “driven,” “out of control,” or compelled.	2
Inability to reduce/cut-out	Lack of ability to reduce or eliminate exercise engagement despite attempts to do so.	2
Tolerance	Needing increased exercise engagement (e.g., longer duration, higher intensity) to achieve the same effect (e.g., affective state; weight control) over time.	2
Build muscle/strength	Engagement in exercise with the aim of increasing one’s muscle mass or strength.	2
Duration	The duration for which one engages in exercise.	2
Exercise intensity	The strenuousness of exercise (e.g., pushing oneself; breathlessness).	2
Importance	Viewing exercise as a top priority or as a reflection of engagement with personal values.	2
Activity type	The type of activity one engages in for exercise (e.g., cardiovascular, stretching, strength training, or specific sports).	1
Lack of Enjoyment	The extent to which one actively does not enjoy exercise engagement.	1