Abstract
Background
Yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces (i.e., ketchup) are consumed regularly by the Australian population. Therefore, there is a need to explore the contribution of these condiments to nutrient intakes among Australians.
Methods
The present study comprises a secondary analysis of data from the 2011–2012 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Dietary intake data were undertaken for 12,153 Australians aged ≥ 2 years, using 24‐h recalls. Yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces were categorised based on how they were defined in the Australian Food and Nutrient (AUSNUT) 2011–2013 database. Kruskal–Wallis H tests and the post‐hoc Dunn's test with Bonferroni correction were applied to test whether a significant difference existed in the percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces to intakes of select nutrients.
Results
In total, 19.6% (n = 2384) of the population sample consumed yeast extract spreads and/or tomato‐based sauces during the 24‐h recall. The percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine were significantly higher in line with a greater quantity of yeast extract spread consumed (p < 0.05). The percentage contribution of tomato‐based sauces to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, riboflavin, niacin, folate, beta‐carotene, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine was increased significantly with a greater quantity of tomato‐based sauces consumed (p < 0.05).
Conclusions
Consumption of yeast extracts and tomato‐based sauces contribute to greater intake of key nutrients, such as B‐vitamins and beta‐carotene, and may assist in meeting key nutrient reference values. However, consumption of these sauces and condiments also resulted in greater intakes of sodium, contributing to population intakes exceeding recommendations. Reducing sodium content of frequently consumed condiments may potentially assist in lowering population intakes, at the same time as preserving intakes of other important nutrients.
Keywords: Australian Health Survey, condiments, dietary intake, nutrient intake, tomato sauce, yeast extract spread
The percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine was significantly higher in line with a greater quantity of yeast extract spread consumed. The percentage contribution of tomato‐based sauces to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, riboflavin, niacin, folate, beta‐carotene, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine was increased significantly with a greater quantity of tomato‐based sauces consumed.
Key points
The majority of Australians consume sauces and condiments. Hence, the contribution of yeast extract spreads and tomato sauces to total sodium intakes was investigated using data from the national nutrition survey.
About one in eight Australians had consumed yeast extract spreads and one in 12 tomato‐based sauces in the previous 24 h, which contribution up to approximately 14% and 12% of total sodium intakes for the highest consumers.
Reformulation of condiments, particularly yeast extract and tomato‐based sauce, to a lower sodium content has the potential to lower population level intakes, especially for Australian who are frequent consumers.
INTRODUCTION
Dietary patterns among Australians and populations in other high income countries do not align with recommendations made in national dietary guidelines. 1 Typically, population intakes of energy‐dense, nutrient poor and ultra‐processed foods, including fried takeaway foods and sugar sweetened beverages, are higher than recommended, whereas intakes of nutrient rich foods, including wholegrains, fruits and vegetables are lower. Furthermore, a common dietary habit is the addition of sauces or condiments to foods or meals to enhance flavour and palatability. 2 There is a large body of research exploring population dietary intakes relative to foods, food groups and nutrient intake adequacy, 1 but limited research to date exploring the contribution of sauces and condiments. Although typically consumed in small quantities, sauces and condiments are often high in one or more macro‐ or micronutrient (e.g., sodium) and therefore could be important in terms of contribution to nutrient intake adequacy or excess. 2
Previously reported sauce, condiment and seasoning intakes among adults using 24‐h recall data from the most recent Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS) identified that 85% of the sample (n = 12,153) consumed sauces, condiments and or seasonings on the recall day. 2 Although the contribution to overall energy intake was small (3.8%), the contribution to intakes of certain nutrients was notable, including a median 3% of total sodium intakes. This is potentially a concern given the average Australian adult consumes twice the suggested dietary target of 2000 mg of sodium per day. 3 Meanwhile, estimates from the Global Burden of Disease study suggest that 40% of females and 51% of males globally have excessive sodium intakes (>3 g per day). 4 Tomato sauce (or ketchup) and the yeast extract spreads, such as Vegemite™ or Marmite™, are two commonly consumed food items in Australia, and can have a relatively high sodium content (approximately 800–3300 mg per 100 g depending on product and brand). 5 These were previously identified as being commonly consumed. 2
Aside from being high in sodium, tomato products including tomato sauce (i.e., ketchup) can be high in lycopene and beta‐carotene. 6 Lycopene and beta‐carotene are carotenoids that have antioxidant properties in the body. 6 Higher tomato and tomato product consumption and/or supplementation of tomato or lycopene have been linked with improved antioxidant status, as well as lower inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk, in adults in epidemiological and experimental studies, attributed in part to these specific carotenoids. 6 , 7 , 8
Yeast extract spreads such as Vegemite™ and Marmite™ are fortified with, and hence good sources of specific B vitamins including thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folate. 5 A 2015 cross‐sectional survey of 520 Australian adults found that individuals who consumed yeast extract spreads reported significantly lower levels of anxiety and stress symptoms than non‐consumers. 9 The mechanism of action behind this is assumed to be mediated by B vitamins involved in homocysteine metabolism, which, when consumed in adequate amounts, act to lower homocysteine levels. 10 Lower homocysteine levels have been shown to have a protective effect on the brain and may preserve brain function. 10
Given that tomato‐based sauces and yeast extract spreads can contribute both positive and negative contributions to nutrient intakes and health indicators, as well as the current relatively high consumption of these food items among some segments of the Australian population, 2 there is a need to explore their contribution to nutrient intakes more closely. Therefore, the present study aimed to:
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1.
Report the frequency and absolute intakes of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces in Australians aged ≥ 2 years, using data from the most recent National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey.
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2.
Report the contribution of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces to key nutrient intakes relative to nutrient reference values (NRVs) and by distribution of intake.
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3.
Examine which foods/food groups and eating occasions yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces are consumed with.
METHODS
Study design
This is a secondary analysis of data from the 2011–2012 NNPAS. 11 Dietary intake data were collected for 12,153 Australians aged ≥ 2 years, by trained interviewers using a 24‐h recall method. The 24‐h recall method captures all food and drinks consumed within the previous 24‐h period. An automated multi‐pass method and food model booklets were used by interviewers to assist with recall and quantity estimation. Nutrient intake data were generated from the 24‐h recall data using the Australian Food and Nutrient (AUSNUT) 2011–2013 database. 5 Full methodological details of the NNPAS are available on the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. 11 This analysis stems from a previous analysis of NNPAS dietary data, which looked at sauce, condiment and seasoning intakes more broadly, as well as the contribution of these food items to total energy and selected nutrient intakes. 2 The Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing Ethics Committee granted ethics approval for the NNPAS. The University Newcastle Human Research Ethics Committee granted approval for this secondary analysis. The reporting of the study complies with the STROBE‐nut guidelines (see Supporting information, Table S1). 12 The analysis was not pre‐registered and is therefore exploratory.
Intakes of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces
Tomato‐based sauces included 14 food items within the “gravies and savoury sauces” sub‐major food group as defined in the AUSNUT 2011–2013 database. 5 Yeast extract spreads included eight food items within the “yeast, and yeast vegetable or meat extracts” sub‐major food group. These food items were identified within the dietary intake data by their eight‐digit food codes, as well as their contribution to energy and nutrient intakes calculated in terms of both absolute intakes and contribution to overall nutrient intakes and NRVs. Determining whether individuals met NRVs or not was based on the National Health and Medical Research Council Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand, considering age, sex and pregnancy/lactation status. 13 Estimated average requirement was used for all nutrients, with the exception of sodium and potassium where adequate intake was used. Beta‐carotene was not included in this as it is a pre‐cursor to vitamin A and therefore does not have an NRV.
Consumption of tomato‐based sauces and yeast extract spreads in the results are described according to the eating occasion when they were consumed, as well as the food combination type (i.e., what food/s they were consumed with). The 14 food combination types within the NNPAS dataset include beverages with additions; cereal with additions; bread/baked products with additions; salad; sandwiches/wraps/rolls with fillings; soup; frozen meal; ice cream/frozen yoghurt with additions; vegetables with additions; fruit with additions; tortilla products; meat, poultry and fish; chips; other mixtures; and not applicable. As described in the preceding study, 2 adjustments were made to the food combination types to separate out the sauces and condiments categorised as “other mixtures” and “not applicable”. Ice cream/frozen yoghurt with additions became “ice cream, and yoghurt or custard”. Meat, poultry and fish became “meat, poultry, fish and alternatives”. Five new food combination categories were also created including pasta dish with additions, rice or other grain‐based dish with additions, meat and/or vegetable based hot dish with additions, egg‐based dish with additions, and savoury pastry or fried food with additions. Not all food combination types are relevant to this particular analysis because tomato‐based sauces and yeast extract spreads were consumed within a relatively smaller set of food combination types than the previous analysis across all types of sauces, condiments and seasonings.
Demographic characteristics
Demographic characteristics collected in NNPAS reported in the present study include age, sex, country of birth, Socio‐Economic Indexes For Areas (SEIFA) and Australian Statistical Geography Standard‐Remoteness Area (ASGS‐RA). Age is reported as categories, consistent with the those within the NRVs (Table 1). 13
Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of the National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS) respondents (n = 12,153), for consumers and non‐consumers of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces
| Total (n = 12,153) | Consumers (n = 2384) | Non‐consumers (n = 9769) | Chi‐squared p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 5702 (46.9) | 1172 (49.2) | 4530 (46.4) | 0.014 |
| Female | 6451 (53.1) | 1212 (50.8) | 5239 (53.6) | |
| Age (years) | ||||
| 2–3 | 464 (3.8) | 156 (6.5) | 308 (3.2) | <0.001 |
| 4–8 | 789 (6.5) | 247 (10.4) | 542 (5.6) | |
| 9–13 | 787 (6.5) | 226 (9.5) | 561 (5.7) | |
| 14‐18 | 772 (6.4) | 191 (8.0) | 581 (6.0) | |
| 19–30 | 1592 (13.1) | 269 (11.3) | 1323 (13.5) | |
| 31–50 | 3565 (29.3) | 620 (26.0) | 2945 (30.2) | |
| 51–70 | 2906 (23.9) | 480 (20.1) | 2426 (24.8) | |
| 71+ | 1278 (10.5) | 195 (8.2) | 1083 (11.1) | |
| Born in Australia | 9157 (75.4) | 2094 (87.8) | 7063 (72.3) | <0.001 |
| Socio‐Economic Index for Area (SEIFA) | ||||
| Lowest quintile | 2238 (18.4) | 453 (19.0) | 1785 (18.3) | 0.448 |
| Highest quintile | 2842 (23.4) | 551 (23.1) | 2291 (23.5) | |
| Australian Statistical Geography Standard‐Remoteness Area (ASGS‐RA) | ||||
| Major city | 7788 (64.1) | 1370 (57.5) | 6418 (65.7) | <0.001 |
| Inner regional area | 2376 (19.6) | 562 (23.6) | 1814 (18.6) | |
| Other | 1989 (16.4) | 452 (19.0) | 1537 (15.7) | |
| Day of the week of diet recall | ||||
| Weekday | 9546 (78.5) | 1900 (79.7) | 7646 (78.3) | 0.127 |
| Weekend day | 2607 (21.5) | 484 (20.3) | 2123 (21.7) | |
| Season of diet recall | ||||
| Summer | 3288 (27.1) | 651 (27.3) | 2637 (27.0) | 0.892 |
| Autumn | 3774 (31.1) | 731 (30.7) | 3043 (31.2) | |
| Winter | 2768 (22.8) | 536 (22.5) | 2232 (22.9) | |
| Spring | 2323 (19.1) | 466 (19.6) | 1857 (19.0) | |
| Amount eaten on day of diet recall | ||||
| Usual amount | 9527 (78.4) | 1887 (79.2) | 7640 (78.2) | 0.490 |
| Much more than usual amount | 839 (6.9) | 170 (7.1) | 669 (6.9) | |
| Much less than usual amount | 1781 (14.7) | 326 (13.7) | 1455 (14.9) | |
| Not stated | 6 (0.1) | 1 (0.04) | 5 (0.1) |
Note: Demographic characteristics of the sample are reported as number and percentages. Therefore the vlaues in the parenthesis are %.
Statistical analysis
Analyses were conducted using StataCorp, version 14.2 (StataCorp LLC). Demographic characteristics of the sample are reported as number and percentages. Dietary intake data were skewed and are therefore reported as median and interquartile range (IQR). Differences between the demographics of consumers and non‐consumers were assessed using chi‐squared. The Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to assess any differences in overall nutrient intakes between consumers and non‐consumers. Kruskal–Wallis H tests and the post‐hoc Dunn's test with Bonferroni correction were used to determine whether a significant difference existed in the percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces to intakes of select nutrients, comparing across groups based on distribution of consumption. These tests were chosen given the skewed data. The percentage of participants who met NRVs for selected nutrients was determined, comparing percentages where nutrient intakes from all foods were included, and with nutrient intakes where tomato‐based sauces and yeast extract spreads were excluded, using paired t tests to establish whether a significant difference existed. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
Demographics of the study sample
Of the 12,153 individuals included, 53.1% were female, 29.3% were aged 31–50 years and 23.9% were aged 51–70 years, with 64.1% living in major cities. Further demographics details are resented in Table 1 and are compared with respect to those who did and did not consume tomato‐based sauces and/or yeast extract spreads on the day of the 24‐h recall. Significant differences between consumers and non‐consumers were observed between by sex and age group, as well as by whether individuals were born in Australia or outside of Australia.
Overall energy and nutrient intakes of consumers and non‐consumers of tomato‐based sauces and/or yeast extract spreads
Comparing overall energy and nutrient intakes among consumers and non‐consumers, identified that consumers had higher total energy intakes and higher intakes of selected nutrients, with the exception of magnesium and vitamin C (Table 2). These differences were statistically significant, with the exception of magnesium.
Table 2.
Summary of energy and select nutrient intakes on the day of the 24 h recall, comparing consumers and non‐consumers of vegemite™ and/or tomato‐based sauces
| Total (n = 12,153) | Consumers (n = 2384) | Non‐consumers (n = 9769) | Wilcoxon rank sum p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy (kJ) | 7777.1 (5843.0–10190.5) | 8043.0 (6124.7–10,578.8) | 7693.0 (5773.6–10080.1) | <0.0001 |
| Sodium (mg) | 2067.7 (1414.2–2964.4) | 2414.4 (1744.9–3426.9) | 1973.4 (1340.3–2867.5) | <0.0001 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2603.3 (1888.7–3473.6) | 2633.7 (1943.5–3533.2) | 2599.9 (1873.6–3457.8) | 0.0256 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 1.2 (0.8–1.9) | 2.0 (1.3–2.9) | 1.1 (0.8–1.6) | <0.0001 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.6 (1.1–2.4) | 2.1 (1.5–3.0) | 1.5 (1.0–2.2) | <0.0001 |
| Niacin (mg) | 19.9 (13.6–28.2) | 23.9 (17.4–32.8) | 18.9 (12.8–27.0) | <0.0001 |
| Folate (µg) | 540.7 (371.3–770.9) | 731.0 (524.7–983.1) | 504.8 (347.1–710.0) | <0.0001 |
| Beta‐carotene (µg) | 233.4 (128.9–377.7) | 256.1 (145.7–408.1) | 228.1 (125.2–370.3) | < 0.0001 |
| Magnesium (mg) | 288.9 (213.6–389.4) | 285.8 (216.0–385.8) | 289.8 (213.1–390.4) | 0.8932 |
| Iron (mg) | 9.6 (6.7–13.3) | 10.0 (7.1–13.5) | 9.5 (6.6–13.2) | <0.0001 |
| Zinc (mg) | 9.1 (6.4–12.9) | 9.4 (6.6–13.2) | 9.0 (6.3–12.8) | 0.001 |
| Iodine (µg) | 155.4 (108.8–214.7) | 168.4 (120.2–228.8) | 152.3 (105.9–210.5) | <0.0001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 37.3 (32.5–131.4) | 63.2 (31.0–126.8) | 68.8 (32.8–132.5) | 0.005 |
Values are the median (interquartile range).
Description of tomato‐based sauce and yeast extract spread intakes
In total, 19.6% (n = 2384) of the sample consumed yeast extract spreads and/or tomato‐based sauces on the day of the recall. Among consumers, the median number of times these items were consumed was one (range 1–5). In total, 11.7% (n = 1419) consumed yeast extract spread, 6.7% (n = 820) consumed tomato‐based sauce and 1.2% (n = 145) consumed both. Among those who consumed yeast extract spreads (n = 1,564), the median (IQR) grams consumed on the day of the recall was 5.8 g (2.5–7.5 g), contributing a median (IQR) 39.4 kJ (17.0–40.7 kJ) of energy or 0.5% (0.3%–0.8%) of total daily energy intake. Among tomato‐based sauce consumers (n = 965), the median (IQR) grams consumed on the day of the recall was 16.6 g (14.0–30.7 g), contributing a median (IQR) 60.9 kJ (60.9–121.8 kJ) or 0.9% (0.6%–1.6%) of total energy intake consumed. Breakfast was the most common eating occasion to consume yeast extract spreads (57.9%) (Figure 1) and tomato‐based sauces (39.5%), followed by lunch (yeast extract spreads, 20.7%; tomato‐based sauces, 38.9%). Yeast extract spreads were predominantly consumed with bread/baked products (77.8%) (Figure 2) and tomato‐based sauces were predominantly consumed with meat, poultry, fish and alternatives (33.4%) or savoury pastry/fried foods (25.7%).
Figure 1.
Distribution of vegemite™ and tomato‐based sauces consumed by eating occasion.
Figure 2.
Distribution of vegemite™ and tomato‐based sauces consumed by food combination type.
Contribution of tomato‐based sauce and yeast extract spreads to selected nutrient intakes among consumers
The percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads to daily nutrient intakes among consumers is reported in the Supporting information (Table S2). Across quartiles of consumption, the percentage contribution of yeast extract spreads to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine was significantly greater as expected. For those in the highest quartile of consumption (≥7.6 g), yeast extract spreads contributed a median of 30.7%–67.6% of B group vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folate) compared to a median contribution of 7.7%–30.1% for those in the lowest quartile (≤2.5 g). For those in the highest quartile, yeast extract spreads also contributed a median of 14.3% of daily sodium intake compared to 3.2% for those in the lowest quartile.
The percentage contribution of tomato‐based sauces to daily nutrient intakes is reported in the Supporting information (Table S3). Comparing across tertiles of consumption, the percentage contribution of tomato‐based sauces to daily intakes of sodium, potassium, riboflavin, niacin, folate, beta‐carotene, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine was significantly greater with a greater quantity of tomato‐based sauces consumed. For those in the highest tertile of consumption (≥28.1 g), tomato‐based sauces contributed a median of 12.5% of beta‐carotene intakes compared to 2.4% for those in the lowest tertile (≤14.0 g). For those in the highest tertile, tomato‐based sauces also contributed a median of 12.7% of sodium intake compared to 4.2% for those in the lowest tertile.
Percentage meeting NRVs for select nutrient intakes, with and without nutrient contributions from yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces
The percentage of the sample meeting NRVs for selected nutrients are presented by age group and sex in Table 3. For all females aged ≥ 2 years, the percentage meeting the NRV was significantly higher when the nutrient contribution from yeast extract spread and tomato‐based sauces was included for sodium, potassium, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, magnesium, iron and zinc. The difference ranged from 0.4% more of the sample meeting the NRV for sodium and zinc to 3.5% more of the sample meeting the NRV for thiamine. For females, more significant differences in the percentage meeting the NRVs were identified for the 19–30 years, 31–50 years and 51–70 years age groups compared to the others, especially for the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folate), potassium, magnesium and iron.
Table 3.
Percentage meeting nutrient reference values for select nutrient intakes for femalesa and males by age, with and without nutrient contributions from yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces
| FEMALESa | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group | ||||||||
| 2–3 years | 4–8 years | 9–13 years | 14–18 years | 19–30 years | 31–50 years | 51–70 years | ≥71 years | |
| Median (IQR) intake of sodium (mg) from all foods | 1425.7 (969.6–1831.8) | 1688.4 (1265.0–2277.1) | 2101.8 (1584.2–2778.7) | 2053.4 (1512.7–3000.8) | 2081.4 (1417.5–3035.8) | 1908.7 (1332.1–2721.6) | 1767.0 (1240.6–2512.2) | 1589.6 (1111.9–2249.7) |
| Percentage meeting upper end AIc sodium – including all foods | 97.0 | 96.7 | 95.2 | 93.8 | 91.3 | 90.1b | 87.9b | 84.3 |
| Percentage meeting upper end AIc sodium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 97.0 | 96.7 | 94.4 | 93.5 | 90.9 | 89.8b | 87.1b | 83.8 |
| Median (IQR) intake of potassium (mg) from all foods | 1949.5 (1425.2–2434.1) | 1867.1 (1421.8–2459.7) | 2359.1 (1700.5–3144.7) | 2210.2 (1614.9–2960.9) | 2411.3 (1736.7–3099.7) | 2477.5 (1849.4–3305.9) | 2597.8 (1919.4–3395.6) | 2403.4 (1739.6–3130.5) |
| Percentage meeting AIc potassium – including all foods | 46.2 | 31.6b | 44.3b | 35.8 | 35.2b | 39.2b | 42.7b | 34.4b |
| Percentage meeting AIc potassium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 44.5 | 30.4b | 41.5b | 34.7 | 34.4b | 38.3b | 42.0b | 33.0b |
| Median (IQR) intake of thiamine (mg) from all foods | 1.0 (0.7–1.5) | 1.2 (0.8–1.8) | 1.3 (0.9–1.9) | 1.1 (0.8–1.7) | 1.1 (0.7–1.7) | 1.1 0.7–1.6) | 1.1 (0.7–1.6) | 1.1 (0.7–1.5) |
| Percentage meeting EARd thiamine – including all foods | 92.0b | 93.9 | 84.3b | 65.9b | 60.8b | 60.7b | 63.1b | 61.9b |
| Percentage meeting EARd thiamine – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 89.8b | 93.4 | 82.8b | 62.6b | 57.3b | 57.0b | 58.7b | 56.9b |
| Median (IQR) intake of riboflavin (mg) from all foods | 1.7 (1.2–2.3) | 1.6 (1.0–2.1) | 1.6 (1.1–2.4) | 1.4 (0.9–2.1) | 1.5 (1.0–2.2) | 1.5 (1.0–2.2) | 1.5 (1.1–2.1) | 1.5 (1.0–2.0) |
| Percentage meeting EARd riboflavin – including all foods | 97.0 | 97.2b | 86.6b | 73.4b | 80.0b | 80.5b | 81.7b | 68.7b |
| Percentage meeting EARd riboflavin – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 96.6 | 95.2b | 83.3b | 68.6b | 76.6b | 77.0b | 79.1b | 65.5b |
| Median (IQR) intake of niacin (mg) from all foods | 12.1 (8.2–18.4) | 13.7 (9.8–18.5) | 17.1 (12.6–21.8) | 16.6 (10.9–24.5) | 18.8 (12.4–25.8) | 18.9 (13.3–26.1) | 17.9 (12.6–24.8) | 16.5 (12.2–22.5) |
| Percentage meeting EARd niacin – including all foods | 92.0 | 95.2b | 89.6b | 74.3b | 81.7b | 83.8b | 81.4b | 80.5b |
| Percentage meeting EARd niacin – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 91.5 | 93.6b | 86.6b | 71.8b | 80.4b | 82.3b | 79.9b | 78.5b |
| Median (IQR) intake of folate (µg) from all foods | 431.0 (312.8–605.2) | 504.5 (354.7–689.1) | 551.7 (382.7–742.3) | 478.2 (339.1–664.5) | 469.8 (313.1–685.4) | 476.1 (329.7–685.5) | 501.7 (356.1–681.7) | 523.4 (383.2–692.4) |
| Percentage meeting EARd folate – including all foods | 97.5 | 97.2 | 90.1 | 77.0b | 74.2b | 76.2b | 80.3b | 83.5b |
| Percentage meeting EARd folate – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 97.0 | 96.9 | 89.4 | 74.8b | 72.6b | 74.9b | 79.3b | 82.6b |
| Median (IQR) intake of magnesium (mg) from all foods | 199.2 (149.7–237.1) | 204.0 (158.1–253.3) | 238.2 (184.8–310.7) | 243.5 (178.7–308.6) | 271.1 (204.1–359.7) | 287.3 (216.1–378.7) | 292.1 (218.3–389.0) | 255.2 (197.4–331.1) |
| Percentage meeting EARd magnesium – including all foods | 97.9 | 94.9 | 67.1 | 26.6 | 55.7b | 56.6b | 60.3b | 45.2 |
| Percentage meeting EARd magnesium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 97.9 | 94.4 | 66.1 | 26.3 | 55.1b | 56.0b | 59.8b | 44.7 |
| Median (IQR) intake of iron (mg) from all foods | 6.4 (4.7–9.1) | 7.5 (5.3–10.1) | 8.7 (6.0–12.3) | 8.1 (5.9–11.7) | 9.0 (6.4–12.1) | 8.7 (6.3–11.9) | 9.2 (6.5–12.3) | 8.7 (6.4–11.3) |
| Percentage meeting EARd iron – including all foods | 84.3 | 91.3 | 75.4 | 51.8 | 58.9b | 58.8b | 89.1b | 87.3 |
| Percentage meeting EARd iron – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 84.3 | 91.1 | 74.9 | 51.0 | 58.3b | 58.3b | 88.7b | 87.0 |
| Median (IQR) intake of zinc (mg) from all foods | 6.5 (4.9–8.4) | 6.8 (4.9–8.8) | 8.1 (5.7–11.5) | 8.1 (5.6–11.1) | 8.5 (6.0–11.7) | 8.5 (6.1–11.7) | 8.4 (6.2–11.8) | 8.0 (5.7–10.8) |
| Percentage meeting EARd zinc – including all foods | 96.6 | 96.2 | 82.8 | 72.1 | 70.0b | 71.0b | 70.7 | 65.0 |
| Percentage meeting EARd zinc – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 96.6 | 95.9 | 82.8 | 71.3 | 69.4b | 70.3b | 70.4 | 64.4 |
| Median (IQR) intake of iodine (mg) from all foods | 143.2 (103.7–189.9) | 140.5 (102.5–183.6) | 154.7 (109.3–206.6) | 136.6 (99.3–177.7) | 138.1 (97.2–201.8) | 144.6 (101.0–194.2) | 141.4 (100.6–190.1) | 135.2 (97.1–180.9) |
| Percentage meeting EARd iodine – including all foods | 90.7 | 93.4 | 91.7 | 77.2 | 73.5 | 75.6 | 75.3 | 72.9 |
| Percentage meeting EARd iodine – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 90.3 | 93.4 | 91.7 | 77.2 | 73.4 | 75.4 | 75.3 | 72.9 |
| Median (IQR) intake of vitamin C (mg) from all foods | 46.2 (23.1–87.3) | 55.7 (27.9–104.4) | 70.3 (34.7–135.7) | 60.5 (26.5–141.5) | 58.7 (29.5–129.4) | 62.7 (30.7–118.5) | 69.9 (34.3–132.1) | 65.6 (32.0–123.7) |
| Percentage meeting EARd vitamin C – including all foods | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Percentage meeting EARd vitamin C – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 72.9 | 77.8 | 80.8 | 74.3 | 74.4 | 75.5 | 78.8 | 77.1 |
| MALES | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group | ||||||||
| 2–3 years | 4–8 years | 9–13 years | 14–18 years | 19–30 years | 31–50 years | 51–70 years | ≥71 years | |
| Median (IQR) intake of sodium (mg) from all foods | 1518.9 (1047.9–2012.6) | 1950.3 (1480.3–2607.7) | 2598.7 (1923.9–3355.6) | 2803.6 (1953.8–3937.4) | 2861.9 (1951.3–4020.8) | 2614.1 (1784.6–3721.1) | 2219.7 (1520.5–3179.3) | 1985.5 (1412.1–2745.6) |
| Percentage meeting upper end AIc sodium – including all foods | 98.3 | 99.2 | 97.2 | 96.0 | 95.0 | 94.3 | 92.5 | 90.8 |
| Percentage meeting upper end AIc sodium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 98.3 | 99.0 | 96.9 | 96.0 | 94.9 | 94.1 | 92.2 | 90.8 |
| Median (IQR) intake of potassium (mg) from all foods | 2015.8 (1508.7–2469.2) | 2206.2 (1681.9–2835.4) | 2619.1 (1923.0–3340.2) | 2709.9 (1912.6–3827.8) | 3129.8 (2256.8–4005.4) | 3121.2 (2273.2–4062.3) | 3041.3 (2224.6–3906.4) | 2798.8 (2078.0–3615.2) |
| Percentage meeting AIc potassium – including all foods | 50.4 | 45.3b | 35.0b | 29.8 | 30.3b | 32.0b | 27.5b | 21.6 |
| Percentage meeting AIc potassium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 48.7 | 41.6b | 33.4b | 29.0 | 29.5b | 31.2b | 26.7b | 21.4 |
| Median (IQR) intake of thiamine (mg) from all foods | 1.1 (0.7–1.8) | 1.4 (1.0–2.1) | 1.7 (1.1–2.5) | 1.6 (1.0–2.5) | 1.5 (0.9–2.3) | 1.4 (0.9–2.2) | 1.4 (0.9–2.1) | 1.4 (0.9–2.1) |
| Percentage meeting EARd thiamine – including all foods | 91.2 | 95.7 | 92.4b | 74.0 | 71.7 | 72.6b | 70.1b | 70.4b |
| Percentage meeting EARd thiamine – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 90.8 | 95.5 | 90.8b | 73.2 | 71.2 | 70.3b | 67.9b | 68.5b |
| Median (IQR) intake of riboflavin (mg) from all foods | 1.7 (1.1–2.5) | 1.7 (1.2–2.5) | 1.9 (1.3–2.8) | 1.9 (1.2–3.1) | 2.0 (1.3–3.0) | 1.9 (1.3–2.9) | 1.7 (1.1–2.5) | 1.7 (1.1–2.3) |
| Percentage meeting EARd riboflavin – including all foods | 98.7 | 97.5b | 91.1b | 78.9b | 80.9b | 80.2 b | 76.9b | 67.4b |
| Percentage meeting EARd riboflavin – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 97.4 | 95.0b | 87.8b | 75.9b | 79.7b | 77.2b | 73.9b | 63.0b |
| Median (IQR) intake of niacin (mg) from all foods | 13.1 (9.0–17.9) | 16.7 (11.3–22.9) | 20.8 (15.0–28.1) | 23.5 (15.5–31.9) | 28.0 (19.1–40.3) | 26.5 (18.1–35.8) | 24.1 (17.4–32.7) | 20.8 (15.0–27.8) |
| Percentage meeting EARd niacin – including all foods | 95.6 | 96.2 | 94.4 | 87.1 | 89.9 | 91.1b | 92.1b | 86.3 |
| Percentage meeting EARd niacin – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 93.9 | 95.7 | 93.6 | 86.6 | 89.7 | 90.6b | 91.6b | 85.6 |
| Median (IQR) intake of folate (µg) from all foods | 454.8 (332.5–678.1) | 624.3 (447.3–786.4) | 699.1 (479.6–966.6) | 694.5 (433.9–967.3) | 586.5 (389.0–864.3) | 610.4 (406.2–870.6) | 604.9 (420.5–838.5) | 621.7 (434.1–871.8) |
| Percentage meeting EARd folate – including all foods | 97.8 | 97.2 | 93.4 | 82.1 | 82.5 | 84.7b | 86.3b | 86.9b |
| Percentage meeting EARd folate – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 97.8 | 97.2 | 93.4 | 81.9 | 82.4 | 84.2b | 85.8b | 85.9b |
| Median (IQR) intake of magnesium (mg) from all foods | 208.3 (157.1–264.7) | 235.6 (187.0–303.4) | 275.7 (212.4–345.9) | 298.7 (213.8–402.7) | 359.6 (258.6–479.3) | 362.9 (271.5–483.6) | 345.6 (253.6–447.2) | 299.0 (225.9–387.8) |
| Percentage meeting EARd magnesium – including all foods | 99.6 | 96.5 | 79.3 | 39.7 | 58.2b | 53.9b | 48.6b | 32.8 |
| Percentage meeting EARd magnesium – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 99.6 | 96.2 | 78.3 | 39.2 | 57.2b | 53.3b | 48.3b | 32.5 |
| Median (IQR) intake of iron (mg) from all foods | 7.2 (4.7–9.7) | 8.8 (6.7–11.5) | 10.9 (7.7–14.3) | 11.4 (7.8–16.4) | 11.8 (7.8–16.5) | 11.4 (8.2–15.6) | 11.3 (8.4–15.0) | 10.6 (8.0–14.7) |
| Percentage meeting EARd iron – including all foods | 79.4 | 95.0 | 89.8 | 73.5 | 86.9 | 88.9b | 88.9 | 88.6 |
| Percentage meeting EARd iron – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 79.4 | 95.0 | 89.0 | 72.7 | 86.5 | 88.4b | 88.7 | 88.4 |
| Median (IQR) intake of zinc (mg) from all foods | 6.7 (5.0–8.8) | 7.9 (5.9–10.3) | 9.6 (6.9–13.1) | 11.4 (7.9–16.3) | 11.9 (8.3–16.5) | 11.3 (8.0–15.8) | 10.7 (7.7–15.2) | 9.7 (6.8–13.8) |
| Percentage meeting EARd zinc – including all foods | 96.9 | 98.2 | 91.6 | 52.6 | 49.4 | 44.8b | 41.1b | 34.5 |
| Percentage meeting EARd zinc – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 96.9 | 98.0 | 90.8 | 51.9 | 48.9 | 44.5b | 40.5b | 34.3 |
| Median (IQR) intake of iodine (mg) from all foods | 146.1 (102.1–208.1) | 155.4 (117.9–210.5) | 178.8 (126.1–248.0) | 187.7 (128.0–273.0) | 194.1 (128.1–262.7) | 183.0 (129.0–255.9) | 166.0 (117.9–224.9) | 161.5 (113.2–210.6) |
| Percentage meeting EARd iodine – including all foods | 92.1 | 97.2 | 94.4 | 85.6 | 84.7 | 85.7 | 83.5 | 83.5 |
| Percentage meeting EARd iodine – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 92.1 | 97.2 | 94.1 | 85.4 | 84.7 | 85.7 | 83.5 | 83.5 |
| Median (IQR) intake of vitamin C (mg) from all foods | 51.2 (24.2–99.0) | 61.9 (29.9–111.3) | 63.7 (30.9–132.7) | 64.6 (27.6–141.9) | 78.3 (36.8–160.6) | 75.6 (37.7–143.0) | 77.0 (39.7–143.7) | 73.6 (37.1–137.3) |
| Percentage meeting EARd vitamin C – including all foods | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Percentage meeting EARd vitamin C – excluding vegemite and tomato sauce | 73.7 | 78.8 | 78.3 | 74.9 | 79.0 | 80.8 | 80.5 | 82.4 |
Abbreviation: IQR, interquartile range.
Percentage meeting nutrient reference values (NRVs) for females is differentiated within age groups based on whether individuals were pregnant or lactating.
Statistically significant difference between percentage meeting NRVs including all foods versus excluding vegemite and tomato sauce, determined using paired t test.
AI, adequate intake; used when recommended dietary intake cannot be determined, based on estimates of intakes assumed to be adequate in healthy people.
EAR, estimated average requirement; estimated daily nutrient requirements of 50% of healthy individuals.
For all males aged ≥ 2 years, the percentage meeting the NRV was significantly higher for the same nutrients as for females when the nutrient contribution from yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces was included. The difference ranged from 0.2% more of the sample meeting the NRV for sodium to 2.8% more of the sample meeting the NRV for riboflavin. For males, more significant differences in the percentage meeting the NRV were identified for the 31–50 years and 51–70 years age groups compared to the others, especially for the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folate), potassium, magnesium and zinc. No significant differences were identified for meeting the NRV for iodine or vitamin C for females or males.
DISCUSSION
The present study involved a detailed analysis of the intakes of two commonly consumed condiments in Australia, yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces, aiming to identify whether they made major contributions to nutrient intakes in Australia, as well as patterns of consumption. Findings provide an important insight into their contributions to nutrient intakes and be used to inform both nutrition monitoring and food reformulation.
The contribution of yeast extract spreads to specific nutrient intakes ranged from 0% for β‐carotene up to 67.6% for thiamine of the relevant nutrient intakes amongst highest consumers, whereas the contribution of tomato‐based sauces ranged from 0% for thiamine and vitamin C up to 12.7% for sodium for highest consumers. Yeast extract spreads contributed up to 67.6% of selected nutrient intakes, with the highest contributions made to the B vitamins; thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and folate for the highest consumers. This is expected given the nutrient profile of these spreads, including Vegemite™, Marmite™ and Promite®, and their fortification with varying B group vitamins. 5 Even among the lowest consumers, yeast extract spreads contributed up to 30.1% of selected B group vitamin intakes. Of note was that significantly more females and males were meeting B vitamin NRVs when nutrient intakes from yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces were included compared to non‐consumers. This highlights the importance of specific condiments, such as yeast extract spreads as an important source of B vitamins, with potential for a recommendation for those with marginal to low intakes, or in at‐risk population groups, to increase intakes of these. However, given that yeast extract spreads also contributed between 3.2% and 14.3% of total sodium for lowest to highest consumers, reformulation to a lower total sodium content of all yeast exact spreads is warranted, as opposed to separate reduced‐sodium product versions. This could be an important strategy given that the median daily intake of sodium was significantly higher among those who consumed yeast extract spreads and/or tomato‐based sauces compared to those who did not (2414 mg vs. 1973 mg) and that population level sodium intakes in Australia are excessive. 3 Subsequent to these data being collected, salt‐reduced yeast extract spreads have entered the market, including Vegemite™ salt‐reduced, 14 which contains 40% less sodium than the original product, which is also fortified with vitamins B6 and B12 in addition to those in the original product.
The present study also found that tomato‐based sauces contributed importantly to selected nutrient intakes among the highest consumers, with the largest contributions being sodium (12.7%) and beta‐carotene (12.5%). Considering median sodium intake from total sauces and condiments was approximately 3% in this population sample, 2 the contribution from yeast extracts and tomato‐based sauces needs to be taken into consideration. As with yeast extract spreads, these findings are consistent with the nutrient profile of tomato‐based sauces, and also raised the same question as to whether potential benefits of higher beta‐carotene intake outweigh the higher sodium intakes. Intake of foods rich in β‐carotene can help prevent vitamin A deficiency as β‐carotene is a precursor to vitamin A; however, vitamin A deficiency is unlikely in Australia. 13 Benefits reported form higher beta‐carotene intake include antioxidant effects leading to lowering level of circulating inflammatory marker such as interleukin‐8 and tumour necrosis factor‐α and lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease, 6 , 7 , 8 whereas higher sodium intakes are associated with greater risk of hypertension. 15 In the present study, consumers of yeast extracts and tomato‐based sauces had higher median intakes of sodium (approximately 2400 mg/day) compared to the Australian suggested dietary targets (2000 mg/day), 13 putting them at a greater risk of hypertension. 15 Furthermore, the present study found that tomato‐based sauces were most often consumed with meat, poultry, fish and alternatives, or savoury pastry and fried foods, which can be higher in added sodium than the sauce. However, given the global trend of excessive sodium intakes 4 and that sodium intake in Australia should be lowered, ideally whole foods should be recommended as optimal sources of nutrients, in this case tomatoes, with reformulation prioritised, not only from tomato‐based sauces, but also across all products. However, intake of low sodium varieties of yeast extracts and tomato sauces could be promoted alongside whole foods to optimise vitamin and mineral intakes.
Implications
Sauces and condiments have potential to make an important contribution to optimising selected population nutrient intakes, particularly for those with marginal or low intakes of these nutrients and could be recommended alongside strategies for boosting intakes of foods or food groups which are currently inadequate (e.g., vegetables). However, the nutrient profile and recommendations around frequency and quantity of consumption need to match nutrient requirements, particularly regarding sodium, which is commonly excessive. For example, using sauces that have a high vegetable content and are low in sodium, or including information on how to use sodium‐reduced sauces and condiments to boost intake of core food groups. The addition of this information to food packaging has been shown to help improve intakes because consumers have been found to generally follow back of package recommendations. 16 , 17 Nutrient fortified sauces and condiments, such as yeast extract spreads, may also be an important source of key nutrients, as indicated by the current analysis. However, there is a need to work with food manufacturers regarding product reformulation such that the overall nutrient profiles are improved. Additionally, for many products, lower salt or reduced sodium varieties are available but consumers may potentially have low awareness of these, particularly regarding the degree of sodium reduction, or they may be less commonly available or at higher prices. Homemade compared to commercially prepared sauces and condiments are likely to differ in their contributions to nutrient intakes. 18 Overall, it is important to promote the consumption of whole foods, in quantities consistent with food group recommendations within national dietary guidelines. 19 This is important to help achieve optimal nutrient intakes. However, because current population dietary patterns are far from this ideal, adding flavourful spreads, sauces and condiments may be a way to promote intakes of foods group that are commonly inadequate (e.g., vegetables and wholegrains). For example, fortification of tomato‐based sauces and/or other condiments enriched in key nutrients, and/or consumption with foods/food groups that are lacking to encourage consumption (e.g., vegetables). These strategies can help support incremental improvements in population dietary intakes.
The strengths of the present study include the detailed analysis of two commonly consumed condiments to population nutrient intakes, as well as the use of a nationally representative dataset with an appropriate dietary assessment method (i.e., 24‐h recall) to address the study aims. Limitations include some nutrients of interest not being included in the AUSNUT database and therefore these could not be explored in the current analysis, including lycopene, which is high in tomato‐based sauces. 6
CONCLUSIONS
The findings from the present study suggest that intakes of yeast extracts and tomato‐based sauces as associated with greater intakes of key nutrients, such as B‐vitamins and beta‐carotene. Given that higher intakes of these sauces and condiments are also associated with higher sodium intakes, which currently exceed recommendations, lower sodium versions of these products should be recommended. Further research is required to determine how yeast extracts and tomato‐based sauces can be used and/or modified to help optimise population intakes of wholefoods and meet key nutrient intake targets.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
CC and MW conceptualised the research aims. All authors contributed to discussion on the methodology used. MW conducted analyses, with assistance from EC and CC. MW and EC drafted the original manuscript. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the results. All of the authors have reviewed and critically approved the final version of the manuscript submitted for publication and accept full responsibility for all aspects of the work described.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors certify that there are no conflicts of interest to declare.
PEER REVIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1111/jhn.13255.
TRANSPARENCY DECLARATION
The lead author affirms that this manuscript is an honest, accurate and transparent account of the study being reported. The reporting of this work is compliant with STROBE‐nut guidelines. The lead author affirms that no important aspects of the study have been omitted and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained.
Supporting information
Supporting information.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not‐for‐profit sectors. CC is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Investigator Grant. Open access publishing facilitated by The University of Newcastle, as part of the Wiley ‐ The University of Newcastle agreement via the Council of Australian University Librarians.
Biographies
Megan Whatnall is a Post‐doctoral Researcher in the School of Health Sciences at the University of Newcastle, Australia, and an affiliate researcher of Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI) in the Food and Nutrition Research Program. Research interests include understanding and improving the eating habits, health and wellbeing of young adults. Qualifications: PhD (Nutrition and Dietetics), Bachelor of Nutrition and Dietetics (Honours).
Erin D. Clarke is a Post‐doctoral Researcher in the School of Health Sciences at the University of Newcastle, Australia, and an affiliate researcher of Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI) in the Food and Nutrition Research Program. Research interests include dietary assessment, dietary biomarkers, the relationship between diet quality and health. Qualifications: PhD (Nutrition and Dietetics), Bachelor of Nutrition and Dietetics (Honours).
Tamara Bucher is an Associate Professor in the School of Environmental and Life Sciences at the University of Newcastle, Australia, and an affiliate researcher of Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI) in the Food and Nutrition Research Program. Research interests includefood and consumer behaviour, food labelling, nutrition education, and food and wine. Qualifications: PhD (Science), Bachelor of Science (Human Biology), Master of Science (Biology), Master of Advanced Studies (Human Nutrition and Health).
Clare E. Collins is a Laureate Professor of Nutrition and Dietetics, and Director of Research, in the School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, Australia, and is Director of the Hunter Medical Research Institute (HMRI), Food and Nutrition Research Program. Research interests includeusing technology to develop, deliver and evaluate nutrition interventions for prevention and treatment of nutrition related chronic conditions. Qualifications: PhD (Nutrition and Dietetics), Post‐graduate Diploma in Clinical Epidemiology, Post‐graduate Diploma of Nutrition and Dietetics, Bachelor of Science.
Whatnall M, Clarke ED, Bucher T, Collins CE. Happy Little Vegemites™! An analysis of the contribution of yeast extract spreads and tomato‐based sauces to nutrient intake adequacy in Australia. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2024;37:292–307. 10.1111/jhn.13255
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Supporting information.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.