Table 1.
Included systematic reviews.
| Main author | References | Title | Date range | Study designs included | Population | Intervention (duration) | Control | Number of studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| R. Adafer | [10] | Food Timing, Circadian Rhythm and Chrononutrition: A Systematic Review of Time‐Restricted Eating's Effects on Human Health | 2014−2020 | RCT, non‐randomised clinical trials, single‐arm | Adults with overweight and obese. Some with T2D/pre‐diabetes. | TRE–eTRE, dTRE (4 days to 4 months) | Standard diet, extended feeding window | 22 |
| B. Alhamdan | [31] | Alternate‐day versus daily energy restriction diets: which is more effective for weight loss? A systematic review and meta‐analysis | 2000–2015 | Experimental studies | Adults with obesity | ADF (3 to 12 weeks) | VLCD | 28 |
| M. Allaf | [11] | Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease | 2011–2019 | RCT | adults over 18 | IER (4 weeks to 6 months) | Standard diet or CER | 18 |
| D. Ashtary‐Larky | [12] | Effects of intermittent fasting combined with resistance training on body composition: a systematic review and meta‐analysis | 2010–2020 | RCT | Healthy Adults performing RT, 1 study with overweight/obese | TRE, ADF, Ramadan (4 to 12 weeks) | Standard diet + RT | 8 |
| D. Bitsanis | [41] | The Effect of Early Time‐Restricted Feeding on Glyceamic Profile in Adults: A Systematic Review of Interventional Studies | 2017–2020 | RCTs, non‐randomised clinical trials | Adults with normal weight, overweight, obese with or without MetS | eTRE (3 days to 5 weeks) | Standard diet or dTRE | 5 |
| J. Bonnet | [13] | Breakfast Skipping, Body Composition, and Cardiometabolic Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Randomized Trials | 1992–2017 | RCT | adults above 18 | Omitting breakfast (4 to 16 weeks) | Having breakfast | 7 |
| E. Borgundvaag | [14] | Metabolic Impact of Intermittent Fasting in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta‐analysis of Interventional Studies | 1991–2018 | RCT | Adults with T2D, mostly obese | TRE, IER, CER (7 and 168 days) | Standard diet | 7 |
| J. Chen | [15] | Missing puzzle pieces of time‐restricted‐eating (TRE) as a long‐term weight‐loss strategy in overweight and obese people? A systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials | 2016–2021 | RCTs, non‐randomised clinical trials | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some with MetS | TRE (6 to 12 weeks) | Standard diet or extended eating window | 12 |
| Y. Cho | [16] | The Effectiveness of Intermittent Fasting to Reduce Body Mass Index and Glucose Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis | 2011–2018 | RCT | Adults over 18 | IER (4 and 24 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 12 |
| J. Choi | [32] | Effect of Carbohydrate‐Restricted Diets and Intermittent Fasting on Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Hypertension Management: Consensus Statement of the Korean Society for the Study of Obesity, Korean Diabetes Association, and Korean Society of Hypertension | 2000–2021 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity (BMI > 23 Korean Obesity Criteria) | TRE, ADF, IER (8 weeks to 24 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 8 on IF (50 on carbohydrate restricted diets) |
| I. Cioffi | [33] | Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardiometabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials | 1998–2018 | RCT | Adults with overweight and obesity, some with T2D | IER (8 to 24 weeks) | CER | 11 |
| J. M. Correia | [45] | Effects of Ramadan and Non‐Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Body | 1995–2020 | RCT, observational studies | adults over 18 | 34 studies on Ramadan, 32 TRE (4 weeks) | Standard diet | 66 |
| Y. Cui | [17] | Health Effects of Alternate‐Day Fasting in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis | 2013–2019 | RCT | Adults with normal weight, overweight or obesity | ADF (4 to 48 weeks) | Standard diet | 7 |
| A. Ezzati | [4] | The Effects of Isocaloric Intermittent Fasting vs Daily Caloric Restriction on Weight Loss and Metabolic Risk Factors for Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled or Comparative Trials | 2000–2022 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some T2D or MetS | TRE, ADF, 4:3, 5:2 (8 to 52 weeks) | CER | 13 |
| M. Faris | [51] | A systematic review, meta‐analysis, and meta‐regression of the impact of diurnal intermittent fasting during Ramadan on glucometabolic markers in healthy subjects | 1982–2020 | Prospective observational studies | Healthy adults | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF) | 72 |
| H. Fernando | [46] | Effect of Ramadan Fasting on Weight and Body Composition in Healthy Non‐Athlete Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis | 1982–2018 | observational studies | Adults between 16–70 years | Fasting during Ramadan: 10–17 h (4 weeks) | return to normal diet post Ramadan | 70 |
| L. Gu | [6] | Effects of Intermittent Fasting in Human Compared to a Non‐intervention Diet and Caloric Restriction: A Meta‐Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | 2007–2021 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some with T2D or MetS | ADF, TRE, IER, RDIF (median intervention time 3 months) | Standard diet or CER | 43 |
| L. Harris | [18] | Intermittent fasting interventions for treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: a systematic review and meta‐analysis | 1989–2015 | RCT and pseudo‐randomised clinical trials | Adults with overweight or obesity | ADF (3 to 12 months) | Standard diet or CER | 6 |
| M. Headland | [19] | Weight‐Loss Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Intermittent Energy Restriction Trials Lasting a Minimum of 6 Months | 1989–2014 | RCT, randomised parallel study | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some with T2DM | IER, modified ADF, 5:2, Intermittent use of CER or VLCD (8 weeks to 2 years) | CER | 9 |
| B. D Horne | [7] | Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? A systematic review | 2008–2013 | RCT, prospective observational trials | Adults without T2D | TRE (2 days to 12 weeks) | Standard diet | 7 |
| H. Jahrami | [54] | A systematic review, meta‐analysis, and meta‐regression of the impact of diurnal intermittent fasting during Ramadan on body weight in healthy subjects aged 16 years and above | 1982–2019 | Prospective observational study, interventional clinical studies | Healthy adults | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF) | 85 |
| H. Jahrami | [55] | Does four‐week consecutive, dawn‐to‐sunset intermittent fasting during Ramadan affect cardiometabolic risk factors in healthy adults? A systematic review, meta‐analysis, and meta‐regression | 1982–2020 | Observational studies, RCT, quasi‐experimental, experimental | Adults | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF) | 91 |
| H. Jahrami | [49] | The impact of Ramadan fasting on the metabolic syndrome severity in relation to ethnicity and sex: Results of a systematic review and meta‐analysis | 1950–2022 | Cohort studies | Healthy adults | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF) | 101 |
| J. Kang | [20] | Effect of Time‐Restricted Feeding on Anthropometric, Metabolic, and Fitness Parameters: A Systematic Review | 2000–2021 | RCT, non‐randomised clinical trials | Adults with normal weight, overweight or obesity | TRE (1 to 16 weeks) | Standard diet or cross‐over | 23 |
| C. Lima | [34] | Impact of intermittent fasting on body weight in overweight and obese individuals | 2015–2019 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity | IF (8 weeks to 4 months) | CER | 4 |
| L. Liu | [21] | Metabolic Efficacy of Time‐Restricted Eating in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | 2016–2022 | RCT | Adults with normal weight, overweight or obesity | TRE (4 weeks to 12 months) | Standard diet | 17 |
| M. Mazidi | [47] | The effect of Ramadan fasting on cardiometabolic risk factors and anthropometrics parameters: A systematic review | 1982–2014 | Case series, cohort studies, randomised studies | Adults | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF) | 16 |
| H. Meng | [44] | Effects of intermittent fasting and energy‐restricted diets on lipid profile: A systematic review and meta‐analysis | 2006–2019 | Clinical trials—cross‐over or parallel design | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some healthy some with T2D or MetS | IF or CER (4 weeks to 12 months) | Standard diet | 35 |
| P. Mirmiran | [50] | Effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on lipid and lipoprotein parameters: An updated meta‐analysis | 1978–2019 | Observational studies and clinical trials | Healthy adults, pregnant women, athletic individuals | RDIF (4 weeks) | Self‐control (pre/post RDIF), non‐fasting control | 33 |
| S. Moon | [22] | Beneficial Effects of Time‐Restricted Eating on Metabolic Diseases: A Systemic Review and Meta‐Analysis | 2007–2020 | RCT, non‐randomised clinical trials | Healthy adults, some with MetS | TRE (25 days to 12 weeks) | Standard diet or pre/post TRE | 21 |
| E. Morales‐Suarez‐Varela | [35] | Intermittent Fasting and the Possible Benefits in Obesity, Diabetes, and Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials | 2015–2020 | RCT and reviews | Adults with obesity and T2D | IF (2 days to 4 weeks) | Standard diet | 31 |
| J.Park | [23] | Effect of alternate‐day fasting on obesity and cardiometabolic risk: A systematic review and meta‐analysis | 2013–2019 | RCT | adults above 18 | Alternate day fasting (4 to 24 weeks) | normal diet, CER, TRF | 8 |
| M. Pellegrini | [24] | Effects of time‐restricted feeding on body weight and metabolism. A systematic review and meta‐analysis | 2003–2018 | RCT, prospective and retrospective observational study | Adults without T2D | TRE: Studies in Ramadan between 12 and 19 h fasts. Other trials 16–20 h fasts. (4 weeks) | Standard diet | 11 |
| I.Pureza | [42] | Effect of early time‐restricted feeding on the metabolic profile of adults with excess weight: A systematic review with meta‐analysis | 2014–2020 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity | eTRE with or without CER (1 day to 12 weeks) | Extended eating window, dTRE, Standard diet | 9 |
| Y. Roman | [36] | Effects of intermittent versus continuous dieting on weight and body composition in obese and overweight people: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials | 1990–2018 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some T2D | IF (12 to 52 weeks) | CER | 9 |
| B. Sadeghirad | [48] | Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta‐analysis | 1982–2011 | observational studies | adults above 18 | RDIF (4 weeks) | return to normal diet post Ramadan | 35 |
| C. Sandoval | [40] | Effectiveness of intermittent fasting to potentiate weight loss or muscle gains in humans younger than 60 years old: a systematic review | 2009–2019 | RCT, cross‐sectional studies | Adults with normal weight, overweight and obesity | IER, eTRE, RDIF, TRE (not provided) | Standard diet, cross over, pre/post RDIF | 10 |
| L. Schwingshackl | [5] | Impact of intermittent energy restriction on anthropometric outcomes and intermediate disease markers in patients with overweight and obesity: systematic review and meta‐analyses | 1989–2019 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity. Most healthy, some T2D | IER, ADF (12 to 42 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 17 |
| R. Seimon | [25] | Do intermittent diets provide physiological benefits over continuous diets for weight loss? A systematic review of clinical trials | 1970–2014 | RCT, pilot studies | Adults with normal weight, overweight or obesity. | IER, ADF (2 to 104 weeks) | Standard diet, CER, some no control | 40 |
| E. Thackrey | [43] | The effects of diet on weight and metabolic outcomes in patients with double diabetes: A systematic review | 2013–2018 | RCT, non‐randomised clinical trials, observational studies | Adults with double diabetes (T1D and IR, MetS, overweight/obesity) | IF, CER, Fasting + CER, MedDiet, low‐fat diet (7 days to 6 months) | Standard diet or different intensity of dietary exposure | 6 (only 1 IF) |
| R. Vitale | [37] | The Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Glycemic Control and Body Composition in Adults with Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review | 2000–2021 | RCT | Adults with T2D and overweight or obesity | IER, 5:2, TRE, modified fasting (12 to 24 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 5 |
| X. Wang | [38] | Intermittent fasting versus continuous energy‐restricted diet for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome for glycemic control: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials | 1998–2020 | RCT | Adults with T2D or MetS | 5:2 or ADF (8 weeks to 12 months) | CER | 5 |
| X. Wei | [26] | Intermittent Energy Restriction for Weight Loss: A Systematic Review of Cardiometabolic, Inflammatory and Appetite Outcomes | 2012–2020 | RCT | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some T2D or MetS | IER, ADF, 5:2, TRE, 6:1, 1week on/1 off (8 to 52 weeks) | Standard diet or CER, with or without exercise | 27 |
| S. Welton | [27] | Intermittent fasting and weight loss: Systematic review | 2000–2019 | RCT, clinical trials with no controls | Adults with overweight or obesity, some with T2D | IF (2 to 52 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 27 |
| Z. Xie | [28] | Effects of time‐restricted feeding with different feeding windows on metabolic health: A systematic review of human studies | 2005–2021 | RCT, non‐randomised trials, cohort studies | Adults with overweight or obesity, some with prediabetes/T2D | eTRE or dTRE (2 to 12 weeks) | Standard diet or CER | 19 |
| F. Yang | [29] | Effect of Epidemic Intermittent Fasting on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | 1998–2020 | RCT | Adults | IF or IER (not provided) | Standard diet or CER | 55 |
| X. Yuan | [30] | Effect of Intermittent Fasting Diet on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism and Insulin Resistance in Patients with Impaired Glucose and Lipid Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis | 2011–2020 | RCT | Adults with MetS or obesity | IF (7 days to 12 months) | Pre/Post intervention | 10 |
| Q. Zhang | [39] | Intermittent Fasting versus Continuous Calorie Restriction: Which Is Better for Weight Loss? | 2000–2020 | RCT, pilot trials | Adults with overweight or obesity. Some T2D or MetS | IF, ADF, 5:2 (6 to 48 weeks) | CER | 11 |
Abbreviations: ADF, alternate day fasting; CER, continuous energy restriction; IER, intermittent energy restriction; MetS, metabolic syndrome; RCT, randomised controlled trial; RDIF, Ramadan diurnal intermittent fasting; RT, resistance training; TRE, time restricted eating (eTRE early, dTRE delayed); T2D, type 2 diabetes mellitus; VLCD, very low calorie dieting.