Table 2.
Characteristics of dyad demonstrators and observers
| Group (n) | Average demonsrator box-opening incidence | Significance | Average demonstrator box-opening index | Significance | Average following duration (s) | Significance | Average following index | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All pass (5) | 170.4 | 5.14 | 1,153 | 34.82 | ||||
| All fail (10) | 199.5 | P = 0.414* (t = −0.84, df = 13, 95% CI = −103.59–45.39, d = 0.46) | 5.31 | P = 0.867* (t = −0.17, df = 13, 95% CI = −2.32–1.98, d = 0.09) | 623 | P = 0.059* (t = −2.07, df = 13, 95% CI = −23.13–1,083.25, d = 1.13) | 16.26 | P = 0.055£ (W = 9) |
| All squeeze (10) | 165.5 | 4.67 | 909 | 25.78 | ||||
| All stagger (5) | 238.4 | P = 0.026* (t = −2.51, df = 13, 95% CI = −135.71–10.09, d = 1.37) | 6.42 | P = 0.065* (t = −2.02, df = 13, 95% CI = −3.63–0.13, d = 1.10) | 580 | P = 0.310£ (W = 34) | 15.76 | P = 0.281* (t = −1.13, df = 13, 95% CI = −9.25–29.33, d = 0.62) |
| Squeezing-pass (5) | 170.4 | 5.14 | 1,153 | 34 | ||||
| Squeezing-fail (5) | 160.6 | 4.20 | 665 | 16.75 | ||||
| Stagger-fail (5) | 238.4 | P = 0.090# (F = 2.96, df = 12, η2 = 0.33) | 6.42 | P = 0.129# (F = 2.45, df = 12, η2 = 0.29) | 580 | P = 0.450$ (χ2 = 14, df = 14) | 15.76 | P = 0.114# (F = 2.62, df = 12, η2 = 0.30) |
‘Pass’ refers to dyads in which the observer passed the learning test, and ‘fail’ refers to those in which it did not. ‘Stagger’ refers to dyads including a demonstrator that preferred staggered-pushing, and ‘squeeze’ refers to dyads including a demonstrator that preferred squeezing. Dyads were further classified into ‘squeezing-pass’, ‘squeezing-fail’ and ‘stagger-fail’ groups depending on these characteristics. Data were analysed with *unpaired one-sided t-tests, #one-way ANOVA, $Kruskal–Wallis tests or £two-tailed Mann–Whitney U tests, depending on the number of groups and the distributions of the data, with 95% CI and effect sizes presented as appropriate. Effect sizes for parametric tests were calculated using Cohen’s d for t-tests and ETA2 for ANOVA. Significant comparisons are marked in bold. To account for differences in session number, the demonstrator box-opening index was calculated as the total incidence of box-opening by the demonstrator/number of joint foraging sessions. Following indexes were calculated as the total duration of following behaviour/number of joint foraging sessions. Following behaviour was defined as the observer being present on the surface of the box, within a bee’s length of the demonstrator, while the demonstrator performed box-opening (thus, following behaviour could occur only after the demonstrator began pushing the blue tab and before it accessed the reward). These figures represent the average for the group. See Table 1 for individual demonstrator box-opening data, and Supplementary Table 1 for individual observer following data.