Table 2.

Development of fretting corrosion in biomedical implants in the past 11 years

Author	Experimental model	Findings/comment
Kumar et al. (2010) [94]	-CP-Ti (grade-2) -Ball-on-flat contact configuration of 8-mm alumina ball moving against stationary CP-Ti -Electrolyte Solution is Ringer’s Solution	-Corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of CP-Ti are nullified under fretting conditions -Passive oxide layer damage led to repassivation that was not instantaneous -Accumulation of debris was present -Test parameters implied a gross slip condition
Pellier et al. (2011) [95]	-A specific device conceived and developed in collaboration between EMSM-SE and Böse was used for fretting corrosion tests -Load cell is a piezoelectric transducer, and the displacement measurer is a capacitive sensor	-Under OCP conditions, increased chloride concentration leads to higher corrosion and a more difficult passive layer reconstruction during the friction phase -Albumin promotes mechanical degradation compared with corrosive wear under cathodic polarization
Kim et al. (2012) [96]	-Conducted in Ringer’s solution -Stainless steel (316L) and poly (methyl methacrylate) -Various potentials are applied in fretting corrosion tests and dissipated energy is determined with several cycles	-The damage rate constant and the damage exponent could determine the accumulation of dissipated energy change -The magnitude of applied potential shows a relation with wear volume -The relation between the applied potential and wear volume can be expressed as an exponential function
Geringer et al. (2013) [97]	-Cylinder–plane contact -Threshold displacement was kept between partial and gross slip -A test system with a pin-on-ball configuration constructed to mimic contact conditions in femoral joint MoM -Co–Cr–Mo cylindrical disc of 12 mm diameter -Ceramic ball of 28 mm diameter of 26-N contact load	-Albumin inhibits the corrosive wear of Type 316L stainless steel -Experiments show that albumin protects 316L stainless steel against fretting corrosion degradation -Between fretting and wear corrosion, the contribution of the synergistic term to the total wear volume is higher for fretting corrosion than for wear corrosion
Kim et al. (2013) [98]	-One parallelepiped specimen (9 mm × 9 mm × 20 mm) and one cylindrical pad (lengths 15 mm with a radius of 10 mm) were used for each fretting corrosion test -Femoral stem was made of stainless steel (316L) PMMA mechanical properties were as follows: Elastic modulus of 2.5 GPa Poisson’s ratio of 0.39 Yield and Tensile strengths of 65 MPa and 75 MPa, respectively -Normal force 127.5 N applied -Frequency of 1 Hz was applied	-In the case of fretting corrosion, the friction coefficient growth rate can be expressed as a power law function -Friction coefficient of -04 V/SCE is higher than that of open-circuit potential -The addition of albumin increases friction coefficient, but it decreases wear rate
Kurtz et al. (2013) [99]	-Priori power analysis was conducted -Total of 100 retrieval cases was judged to be adequate -Scoring system for fretting and corrosion was characterized using a previously published 4-point scoring technique (1 indicating minimal fretting or corrosion and 4 indicating severe damage)	-For the stems in the ceramic–metal when compared with the metal–metal taper cohort: Fretting and corrosion scores were lower -Decreased stem flexural rigidity -Lower corrosion scores were observed between the ceramic–metal and metal–metal taper cohorts
Molloy et al. (2014) [68]	-Review of fifteen patients who had received an ABG II dual-modular hip system -Time frame: From May 2007 to August 2008 -Anteroposterior radiographs of the pelvis were scored with regard to medical calcar erosion -MRI was performed -Retrieval analysis on implants removed at revision	-Mean duration of follow-up for patients was 42.3 months -Cobalt-ion levels were elevated in all patients -Chromium levels were within normal range -Medial femoral calcar erosion in seven of fifteen patients -ABG II dual-modular hip system is associated with a high rate of early failure secondary to fretting and corrosion at femoral neck stem taper -Component has been recalled and is no longer in use
De Martino et al. (2015) [100]	-Retrospective case series of 60 consecutively retrieved implants from 55 patients (all who had received a Rejuvenate modular hip system as part of primary total hip arthroplasty from Stryker Orthopedics (New Jersey) -Rejuvenate stem made of titanium alloy (Ti-12Mo-6Zr-2Fe or TMZF) -Modular neck made of Co–Cr–Mo -Bearing consisted of Co–Cr–Mo (V40 LFIT CoCr, Stryker) and ceramic (V40 BIOLOX delta, Stryker) -Implants were examined visually under a stereomicroscope (magnification 6 × to 10 ×, Wild Type 376,788 Microscope, Heerbrugg, Switzerland) -Zones assess each modular neck and stem according to Goldberg’s criteria on a scale from 1 to 4 (1 =none, 4 = severe) -Scanning Electron Microscopy -Statistical Analyses: Multiple linear regression using the GEE method	-Higher corrosion scores on the medial and distal lateral sides of the taper junction were consistent with cyclic cantilever bending of the neck and head portion, which is a major cause of fretting and subsequent corrosion -Positive correlation between LOI and fretting and corrosion scores suggests damage modes will increase with time
Royhman et al. (2015) [56]	-CoCrMo and Ti6A14V alloy were used -Flat on flat (pins on rod from both sides) -Machine compliance evaluation -Tested couples: Ti6A14V–Ti6A14V–Ti6A14V (Ti–Ti–Ti), Ti6A14V–Ti6A14V–CoCrMo (Ti–Ti–Co), and CoCrMo–Ti6A14V–CoCrMo (Co–Ti–Co) -Electrolyte is diluted BCS protein concentration of 30 g/L -Reference Electrode: SCE’ -2 pH levels are (pH 3.0 and 7.6)	-No significant difference in electrochemical or mechanical behavior in response to pH change -Ti6A14V–Ti6A14V–Ti6A14V displayed the earliest passivation and superior electrochemical behavior under fretting conditions -Findings suggest transitions in the degradation mechanisms at the modular junction as a function of material couples/contact
Dos Santos et al. (2016) [101]	2 models of modular hip prostheses were analyzed: -Model SS/SS cemented: prosthesis of long-term use with the femoral head and stem made of austenitic stainless steel (ASTM F138–13a)-Bone cement -Model SS/TI Cementless: prosthesis of long-term use with the femoral head made of ASTM F138 stainless steel and stem made of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy (ASTM F136–13) Electrolyte Solution: 0.90 NaCl in distilled water Vacuum filtration of 0.015 μm	-Localized corrosion in head–taper interface in the prostheses -Stainless steel prostheses more susceptible to corrosive attack -Fretting corrosion did not create cracks Particles: agglomerated/irregular in SS/Ti and smooth/irregular in SS/SS -Particles with the presence of elements from the implants -Model SS/Ti was more resistant to fretting corrosion
Royhman et al. (2016) [57]	-CoCrMO hip implant head on Ti6A14V hip implant stem -Representative contact geometry (flat-on-flat contact) -Reference Electrode is SCE (saturated calomel electrode) -Counter electrode is a graphite rod	-Drastic deviation (of potential drops at onset fretting, during fretting, and the onset of fretting to termination) from linearity at 100-μm displacement amplitude -Found a large number of Ti deposits on the CoCrMo pin surfaces -Increased levels of resistance of the system after induction of fretting motion
Esguerra-Arce et al. (2016) [102]	- Ti1–xAlxN films were deposited on AISI 304 stainless steel and Si (100) substrates by reactive magnetron co-sputtering at 250 °C	-Fretting corrosion against bone can damage the metal and coatings -The wear volume loss is related to the corrosion resistance and H/E ratio -Ti–Al–N improved the wear resistance of the stainless steel in simulated body fluid
Hui et al. (2017) [71]	-Custom fretting corrosion cell culture test instrument was built to allow for mechanical, electrochemical, and cell culture measurements in a pin-on-disk model -Piezoelectric actuator in conjunction with an output amplifier	-Fretting corrosion debris and cathodic potential excursions induced increased cell killing -Cathodic potentials below a threshold of –400 mV appear to be a strong effector of cytotoxic response -The specific electrochemical conditions associated with fretting corrosion may play an important role in how local cells and tissue respond to mechanically assisted corrosion processes in vivo
Kyomoto et al. (2017) [103]	-Co–Cr–Mo alloy specimens were machined from a Co-28Cr-6Mo alloy bar stock -Galvanic corrosion test with a mixture of 27% volume FBS with pH adjusted to 7.4 were evaluated according to ASTM G&1–81 -12 hip simulators where femoral heads were placed on a Ti-6A104V alloy trunnion and a 2.0-kN load according to ISO 7206–10 -Head-stem neck junction	-The galvanic current density for the Co–Cr–Mo alloy group during the initial 60 s was significantly higher than those in our cupboards -The galvanic current density for the Co–Cr–Mo alloy group during the initial 60 s was significantly higher than that for the ZTA ceramics -In contrast, the galvanic current densities did not differ significantly even after 7 days
Royhman et al. (2018) [60]	-Ti6A14V/CoCrMo couples -Custom-made setup was used to evaluate the fretting corrosion behavior of hip implant modular junctions -New-born calf serum solution (30 g/L protein content) -Sinusoidal fretting motion with displacement amplitude of + 50 μm applied to Ti alloy rod -Simulated periprosthetic pH variations were (pH levels 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, and 7.6)	-The pH level influenced potential drop under fretting conditions -There is a direct correlation between the potential drop (cathodic excursion in potential) and the material loss into the surrounding electrolyte -Fretting corrosion at all pH levels created damaged surfaces with specific wear and corrosion features
Semtse et al. (2019) [104]	-Sample: Ti-6Al-4 V alloy with spark plasma sintered and Ti-6Al-4 V composites with 5–10-wt% ZrO2 -Fretting corrosion between the femoral stem and neck adapter was measured -Simulated body fluid used for the experiments was the fetal bovine serum with protein contents of 30 g/l -Test duration for fretting was 57,600 cycles	Adding zirconia to Ti-6Al-4 V produced a modified microstructure containing globular zirconia-rich agglomerates -Additions of 5-wt% ZrO2 in Ti-6Al-4 V is ineffective in improving the tribocorrosion properties of Ti-6Al-4 V due to the high amount of surface degradation and the increased wear volume exhibited by this material -Ti-6Al-4 V composites showered a lower tendency to metal ion release than pure Ti-6Al-4 V
Smith et al. (2020) [105]	-Custom in vitro pin-on-disk fretting test setup used to test pin-disk couples -Implant alloys: Ti-6Al-4 V/Ti-6Al-4 V (ASTM-F1472), CoCrMo/CoCrMo (ASTM-F1537), and Ti-6Al-4 V/CoCrMo -3 pin contact geometries and compliances: (low (2 mm wide × 1 mm tall), medium (1.5 mm wide × 2 mm tall), and high (1 mm wide × 3 mm tall) -Variable-load test chosen to allow for the full range of fretting regimes (slip, stick–slip, and stick)	-Geometric changes to the metal–metal junction can reduce fretting corrosion damage -Modified surface contact geometries can create a more compliant interface -Compliant interfaces prevent oxide abrasion of metal surfaces, reducing damage -Compliant geometries elastically bend during fretting, creating a ‘stick’ regime -Fretting corrosion maps characterize contact mechanics over a range of conditions
Tsai et al. (2021) [106]	-CoCrMo alloy is cut into 1 cm lengths from a 16-mm-diameter rod -Polishing was done with 6- and l-μm diamond suspensions and 0.05-μm silica suspension -Temperature during both coating depositions was controlled at 380–420 °C -SEM and EDS -Biaxial and shear model	-ZrN and TiSiN coatings on CoCrMo substrates to improve fretting corrosion resistance -Both coatings show the lower Co ion release -No evidence of avoiding the delamination