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. 2024 Mar 22;17:13. doi: 10.1186/s13045-024-01528-7

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Overview of the cyclooxygenase pathway and the action mechanisms of cyclooxygenase-targeting strategies in cancer. The COX-2/PGE2 pathway facilitates the maintenance of immunosuppressive TME by activating a wide range of immunosuppressive immune cells. Inhibitors of COX-2 signaling such as NSAIDs are potentially a good combination partner for immunotherapies. Figures created with BioRender. Abbreviations: PGH2, prostaglandin H2; PGG2, prostaglandin G2; PLA2, PLC, PLD, phospholipases A2, C, and D; PGE2, prostaglandin (PG) E2; PGI2, prostacyclin; PGD2, prostaglandin D2; PGF2α, prostaglandin F2α; TXA2, thromboxane A2; MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cells