Table 2.

Key inflammatory cytokines involved in cancer

Inflammatory cytokines	Major sources	Receptors	Key actions in cancer
TNF-α	Macrophages, T lymphocytes, NK cells, neutrophils, mast cells, eosinophils and neurons	TNF-αR-1, TNF-αR-2	•Antitumor actions by promoting tumor cell apoptosis, directing TAMs toward the M1 phenotype, and impairing tumor vasculature
			•Promotes the EMT of tumor cells
			•Immunosuppressive actions by promoting Tregs survival and functions
TGF-β	Tumor cells, bone matrix	TGF-βRI, TGF-βRII	•Suppresses cancer at early stages of tumorigenesis through apoptosis induction and immune cell modulation
			•Facilitates cancer progression at the later stage by promoting EMT, immune escape, angiogenesis, and suppressing apoptosis
IFN-I	DCs, B cells, fibroblasts	IFNAR1, IFNAR2	•Provides proinflammatory signals for tumor progression
			•Facilitates immune evasion of tumor cells
			•Promotes cancer stemness by triggering the epigenetic regulator
			•Antitumor activities by negatively regulating premetastatic niche formation in the TME
IL-1	Tumor cells, MDSCs, TAMs, TANs, regulatory B (Breg) cells and Th17	IL-1R	•Promotes tumor progression by recruiting MDSCs to inhibit T cell activation
			•Promotes the production of angiogenic factors such as VEGF by tissue-resident endothelial cells
			•Antitumor activities by inducing Th1-mediated immunity against cancer
IL-6	Tumor cells, T cells, B cells, monocytes, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, endothelial cells, mesangial cells, adipocytes	IL-6R	•Promotes tumor progression by inducing tumor cell proliferation, survival, EMT, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance
			•Suppresses tumor cell senescence
IL-10	Tumor cells, leukocytes	IL-10R	•Contributes to immunosuppressive microenvironment via exhaustion of intratumoral CD8 + T cells
			•Antitumor activities by promoting the infiltration and cytotoxic activity of CD8 + T cells

TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; TGF-βR, TGF-β receptor; IL, interleukin; IFN, interferon; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; DC, dendritic cell