Table 2. Risk of bias assessments using ROBINS-I for included articles.

Title	Bias 1	Bias 2	Bias 3	Bias 4	Bias 5	Bias 6	Bias 7	Overall score
Alizadehkhaiyat et al. (2014)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Andrews, Thomas & Bohannon (1996)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Aydin et al. (2001)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Bäckman et al. (1995)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Barnekow-Bergkvist et al. (2004)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Barrenetxea-Garcia et al. (2019)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Buśko & Gajewski (2011)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Cahalan, Johnson & Chao (1991)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Chezar et al. (2013)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Collins & O’Sullivan (2018)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Cools et al. (2016)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Danneskiold-Samsøe et al. (2009)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Douma et al. (2014)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Ellenbecker & Roetert (2003)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Eren et al. (2019)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Faber, Hansen & Christensen (2006)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Ferreira, Górski & Gajewski (2020)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Coury et al. (1998)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Guirelli et al. (2021)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Hageman et al. (1989)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Harbin, Leyh & Harbin (2020)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Harbo, Brincks & Andersen (2012)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Hartsell (1998)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Hill, Pramanik & McGregor (2005)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Hills & Bohannon (1992)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Holzbaur et al. (2007)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Huberman, Scales & Vallabhajosula (2020)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Hughes et al. (1999)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Ivey, Calhoun & Rusche (1985)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Khalaf & Parnianpour (2001)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Kim et al. (2009)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Kramer & Ng (1995)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Kramer & Ng (1996)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Koski & McGill (1994)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Lannersten et al. (1993)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Lindström et al. (2003)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Lorenzo & Nunez (2021)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
MacDonell & Keir (2005)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Maddux, Kibler & Uhl (1989)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Magnusson et al. (1995)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Marcondes et al. (2019)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Mayer et al. (1994)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
McKay et al. (2017)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
McMaster, Long & Caiozzo (1992)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Meldrum et al. (2007)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Motta et al. (2019)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Murgia et al. (2018)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Murray et al. (1985)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Nyberg et al. (2014)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Pontillo & Sennett (2020)	L	M	L	L	L	L	L	M
Reid et al. (1989)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Riemann et al. (2010)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Roy et al. (2009)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Carrascosa-Sanchez et al. (1999)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Carrascosa-Sanchez et al. (2023)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Shklar & Dvir (1995)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Smith et al. (2001)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Stausholm et al. (2021)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
van Cingel et al. (2007)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Van Harlinger, Blalock & Merritt (2015)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
van Meeteren, Roebroeck & Stam (2002)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Westrick et al. (2013)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L
Yates et al. (1980)	L	L	L	L	L	L	L	L

Note:

L , Low risk; M, Moderate risk; H, High risk; article scores were represented as the highest score received across domains.