Table 3.
Examples of haptic feedback devices summarized with their mechanism, material properties, design features, and input and output characters. Reproduced with permission from [183,185]. Copyright, John Wiley and Sons and Springer Nature.
| Approach | Key mechanism | Reference | Materials and characters | Dimensions (mm)/weight | Array | Position | Output parameters (voltage/current)(displacement/force/frequency) | Resolution | Input (electric/mechanical signal) | Demonstration/application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mechanical vibration | Pneumatic actuator | [130] | Air chamber created with silicone layers | D = 15T = 1.4–1.5 | 3 channels | Fingertip | F = 0.3 Nf = 5–100 Hz | 10 mm | Pressure, 70 kPa | - |
| Pneumatic actuator | [132] | PDMS membrane | L = 22T = 8 | - | Fingertip | D = 6 mmF = 1 Nf = 0.1–10 Hz | - | Pressure, 20 kPa | Virtual control | |
| Pneumatic actuator | [133] | PDMS/Ecoflex | D = 9T = 1.5 | - | Fingertip | F = 3.23 Nf = 10–160 Hz | - | Pressure, 100 kPa | Virtual control | |
| Pneumatic actuator powered by electrostatic force | [134] | Ecoflex | D = 15T = 5W = 0.57 g | - | Fingertip | D = 0.15 mmf = 0.2, 0.3, 1.0 Hz | - | Square wave, 0–6 kV | Virtual control | |
| Pneumatic actuator | [135] | Silicone elastomer | D = 10 | - | Fingertip | D = 5 mmf = 0–100 Hz | - | Pressure, 30 kPa | - | |
| Flexible voice-coil magnetic actuator | [136] | Cu coil, NdFeB magnet with PDMS encapsulation | D = 18T = 4.0W = 1.4 g | 32 channels | Arm, bac, opisthenar | D = ≈191–300 μmF = 135 mNf = 100–300 Hz | 18 mm | Pulse, 5 V | Social media communication, feedback prosthetic, immersive games | |
| Magnetic actuator | [137] | Cu coil, magnet with PDMS encapsulation | D = 5T = ≈1.8 | 3 × 3 | Fingertip, wrist | D = ≈1.55 mmf = 200 Hz | ~5 mm | Sine wave, 0.01–0.5 V, 1.12–56.18 mA, 70–740 Hz, 1.4 mW | Dynamic Braille | |
| Electrotactile | Electrical stimuli | [141] | Steel electrodes | D = 1 | 4 × 4 | Fingertip | Pulse, 0.2 ms,I = 1.0–3.0 mAf = 30 Hz | 2–4 mm | Pulse, 0.2 ms, 100–300 V, 1.0–3.0 mA, 30 Hz | - |
| Electrical stimuli | [143] | Pin electrode (Cu) | D = 1 | 31 channels | Fingertip | Pulse, 20 μsI = 0.0–5.0 mAf = 210 Hz | 2 mm | Pulse, 20 μs0.0–5.0 mAf = 210 Hz | Force vector identification | |
| Electrovibration and electrical stimuli | [144] | Cr electrode | 18 × 0.9 | - | Fingertip | I = 0–5 mA,f = 5–320 Hz | 2 mm | 0–600 V, 0–5 mA, 5–320 Hz | - | |
| Electrical stimuli | [145] | Microneedle electrode (Ti) | D = 0.3 | 1 × 5 | Fingertip | f = 10–100 Hz | 2 mm | 10–100 V, 10–100 Hz | - | |
| Electrical stimuli | [146] | Ag/Cu electrode | D = 1 | 5 × 510 × 10 | Fingertip, palm | f = 10 kHz | 4 mm | Square wave,15–20 V, 10 kHz | Font Braille, electrotactile rendering | |
| Electrostatic discharge stimuli | [147] | Tin ball-shaped electrode | D = 0.5 | 21 channels | Fingertip,forearm | I = 25 μA | 3 mm | Kinetic energy, body movement | Social media communication, dynamic Braille | |
| Dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) | DEA | [149] | 8-layer silicone layer separated with flexible carbon electrode | D = 2T = 2 | 4 × 5 | Fingertip | D = ≈471 μmF = 14 mN | 3 mm | Square wave, 3,500 V, 0–100 Hz | - |
| DEA | [150] | 6-layer silicone layer separated with flexible Ag NW electrode | D = 16T = 0.7 | 2 × 3 | Fingertip, forearm | D = ≈300–650 μmF = 50–250 mN | - | Sinusoidal wave, 3–4 kV, 0–500 Hz | - | |
| DEA | [151] | PDMS membrane with PMMA holder, carbon nanotube | T = 18 μmW = 1.3 g | - | Fingertip | f = 1–500 Hz | - | 480 V | Haptic reader | |
| Electrohydraulic actuator | [153] | Dielectric oil, silicone membrane, dielectric shell and Ag electrode | D = 2 | 7 channels | Fingertip, palm | D = 500 μmP = 1 MPa | 3 mm | 0–4 kV | Feedback recognition of surface texture and object shape | |
| Electrohydraulic actuator | [154] | Dielectric oil, stretchable membrane, ITO electrode on PET holder | T = 500 μmL = 22 | 16 channels | Fingertip | D = 1.5 mmF = 4 Nf = 2 Hz | - | 1–1.5 kV, 0–30 Hz, 6 mW | Feedback touchscreen | |
| Electrohydraulic actuator | [155] | Dielectric oil, PDMS membrane and aluminum electrode | L = 10 | 5 × 5 | Fingertip, arm | D = 500 μmF = 300 mN | 10 mm | Square bipolar signal, 0–1,400 v, 200 Hz | Normal and shear force feedback | |
| Electrohydraulic actuator | [156] | VHB dielectric film, silicone/carbon black composite electrode and insulating silicone grease | D = 12.5T = 5.5 | - | Fingertip | F = 1 N | - | Square wave, 0.5–4 kV, 0.1–3 Hz | Various feedback identification | |
| Electrohydraulic actuator | [157] | Dielectric oil, carbon black electrode, PDMS encapsulation and PET substrate | T = 350 μmW = 1 g | 2 × 3 | Fingertip | D = 200 μmF = 40 mN | - | Sine waves, 4 kV, 1–1,000 Hz | Static haptic stimulation |