Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the participants.
| Characteristics | Total | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 47 (32, 59) | 46 (31, 59) | 48 (32, 60) | 47 (33, 59) | 46 (33, 58) | 0.210 |
| Gender, % (SE) | 0.070 | |||||
| Male | 51.48 (0.02) | 53.93 (1.20) | 52.98 (1.53) | 49.27 (1.43) | 49.86 (1.41) | |
| Female | 48.52 (0.02) | 46.07 (1.20) | 47.02 (1.53) | 50.73 (1.43) | 50.14 (1.41) | |
| Race/Ethnicity, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 9.82 (0.01) | 16.05 (1.46) | 10.34 (1.06) | 7.91 (0.80) | 5.46 (0.62) | |
| Non-Hispanic White | 68.86 (0.04) | 64.63 (2.18) | 64.63 (2.18) | 70.75 (2.02) | 71.83 (1.86) | |
| Hispanic | 5.33 (0.01) | 5.39 (0.68) | 5.39 (0.68) | 5.26 (0.62) | 5.55 (1.86) | |
| Other race | 15.99 (0.01) | 13.93 (1.08) | 13.93 (1.08) | 16.08 (1.41) | 17.16 (1.23) | |
| Education levels, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Less than high school | 2.57 (0.01) | 3.28 (0.35) | 3.07 (0.38) | 2.15 (0.31) | 1.83 (0.31) | |
| High school diploma | 7.22 (0.01) | 11.16 (0.85) | 7.83 (0.82) | 5.50 (0.65) | 4.68 (0.71) | |
| More than high school | 90.20 (0.03) | 85.55 (1.01) | 89.10 (1.01) | 92.35 (0.75) | 93.49 (0.84) | |
| Marital status, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Married | 55.18 (0.03) | 46.64 (1.70) | 35.18 (1.61) | 32.90 (1.70) | 28.84 (1.70) | |
| Divorced | 10.46 (0.01) | 12.33 (0.82) | 10.74 (0.87) | 10.05 (0.98) | 8.85 (0.96) | |
| Living alone | 34.36 (0.03) | 41.04 (1.56) | 35.18 (1.61) | 57.05 (1.60) | 62.30 (1.89) | |
| Poverty income ratio | 3.3 (1.6–5.0) | 2.4 (1.2–4.5) | 3.1 (1.6–5.0) | 3.4 (1.8–5.0) | 4.0 (2.1–5.0) | <0.001 |
| Energy intake (kcal) | 2057 (1,537, 2,688) | 1,500 (1,125, 1991) | 1949 (1,510, 2,499) | 2,217 (1713, 2,870) | 2,517 (2018, 3,224) | <0.001 |
| Caffeine (mg) | 127 (33, 249) | 105 (28, 228) | 128 (35, 241) | 144 (33, 260) | 135 (29, 253) | <0.001 |
| Sleep trouble, % (SE) | 0.180 | |||||
| Yes | 29.09 (0.01) | 30.98 (1.49) | 29.19 (1.55) | 29.76 (1.54) | 26.55 (1.35) | |
| No | 70.92 (0.02) | 69.02 (1.49) | 70.81 (1.55) | 70.24 (1.54) | 73.45 (1.35) | |
| MetS, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 29.98 (0.01) | 35.51 (1.25) | 34.71 (1.42) | 27.46 (1.52) | 22.54 (1.44) | |
| No | 70.02 (0.03) | 64.49 (1.25) | 65.29 (1.42) | 72.54 (1.52) | 77.46 (1.44) | |
| Elevated TG, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 36.31 (0.02) | 38.80 (1.51) | 39.78 (1.66) | 34.64 (1.34) | 32.11 (1.39) | |
| No | 63.69 (0.02) | 61.20 (1.51) | 60.22 (1.66) | 65.36 (1.34) | 67.89 (1.39) | |
| Low HDL-C, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 26.50 (0.01) | 31.64 (1.41) | 29.54 (1.54) | 23.35 (1.47) | 21.76 (1.33) | |
| No | 73.50 (0.03) | 68.36 (1.41) | 70.46 (1.54) | 76.65 (1.47) | 78.24 (1.33) | |
| Elevated FPG, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 25.41 (0.01) | 27.06 (1.28) | 28.73 (1.43) | 26.05 (1.21) | 20.01 (1.51) | |
| No | 74.55 (0.03) | 72.94 (1.28) | 71.27 (1.43) | 73.95 (1.21) | 79.99 (1.51) | |
| Elevated WC, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 55.79 (0.02) | 64.37 (1.20) | 60.32 (1.42) | 55.07 (1.71) | 43.98 (1.94) | |
| No | 44.21 (0.02) | 35.63 (1.20) | 39.68 (1.42) | 44.93 (1.71) | 56.02 (1.94) | |
| Elevated BP, % (SE) | <0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 31.95 (0.01) | 35.58 (1.55) | 35.52 (1.38) | 30.10 (1.54) | 26.79 (1.43) | |
| No | 68.05 (0.03) | 64.42 (1.55) | 64.48 (1.38) | 69.90 (1.54) | 73.21 (1.43) |
The p value was calculated by the Kruskal-Wallis H test for continuous variables. The p value was calculated by Chi-square test for categorial variables. SE, standard error; MetS, metabolic syndrome; TG, triglycerides; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; WC, waist circumference; BP, blood pressure.