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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Proposed bacterial mechanisms of resistance to β-lactam antibiotics (BLAs), including the production of β-lactamases, the modified active sites of penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), and down-regulated outer membrane proteins (OMPs).