TABLE 3.
GLP-1 response and meal composition
| Author, (y), n | GLP-1 assay | Test meal (Duration, nutrient composition) | Participant characteristics | GLP-1 values (pmol/L) at time points (min) |
TTP (min) | Δ Peak (pmol/L) | GLP-1 AUC/iAUC | Results | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 15 | 30 | 45 | 60 | 90 | 120 | 180 | 240 | |||||||||
| Solid meals | |||||||||||||||||
| Rijkelijkhuizen et al. 2010 [69] n = 24 RCT cross-over |
RIA1 | Test meals (10 min) Small CH-rich meal (SCH, 460 kcal. 66% CH, 18% F, 16% P) Large CH-rich meal (LCH, 680 kcal, 66% CH, 18% F, 16% P) Fat-rich meal (FRM, 833 kcal, 36% CH, 52% F, 12% P) |
NGT (n = 6, BMI:: 26.9 kg/m2) | SCH | 5 | 11 | 13 | 14 | 120 | 9 | 120 min: iAUC: 13.5 (pmol/L∗h) | ↔ absolute values - in NGT values still rising after first 2 h, in T2DM stabilized -↑ iAUC after LCH compared with FRM in T2DM |
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| LCH | 7 | 15 | 17 | 22 | 120 | 15 | 120 min: iAUC: 16.8 (pmol/L∗h) | ||||||||||
| FRM | 4 | 15 | 13 | 16 | 120 | 12 | 120 min: iAUC: 19.1 (pmol/L∗h) | ||||||||||
| T2DM (n = 18, BMI:: 28.9 kg/m2) | SCH | 3 | 13 | 15 | 14 | 60 | 12 | 120 min: iAUC: 18.3 (pmol/L∗h) | |||||||||
| LCH | 3 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 60 120 | 16 | 120 min: iAUC: 23.8 (pmol/L∗h) | ||||||||||
| FRM | 3 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 30 | 10 | 120 min: iAUC: 13.6 (pmol/L∗h) | ||||||||||
| Törrönen et al. 2012 [63] n = 12 RPCT cross-over |
ELISA (Millipore)2 | Test meal (n.a.): IG: 35 g sugar + berries (150 g) CG: placebo |
NGT (BMI:: 24.3 kg/m2) | IG | 26 | 32 | 34 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 30 | 8 | 120 min: AUC: 312 (pmol/L∗min)# |
↑ GLP-1 secretion (overall difference) borderline significant in IG compared with CG | ||
| CG | 25 | 29 | 30 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 30 | 5 | 120 min: AUC: 216 (pmol/L∗min)# |
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| Belinova et al. 2014 [65] n = 100 RCT cross-over |
Multiplex immunoanalysis xMAP technology3 | Test meal (n.a.): VE: Vegan (455 kcal, 52% CH, 37% F, 11% P) ME: processed meat meal (455 kcal, 27% CH, 52% F, 21% P) |
NGT (n = 50, BMI:: 24.4 kg/m2) | VE | 3.7 | 3.9 | 4 | 3.8 | 3.7 | 60 | 0.3 | n.a. | ↑ postprandial GLP-1 concentration in T2DM in VE compared with ME | ||||
| ME | 3.6 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 30 | 0.7 | ||||||||||
| T2DM (n = 50, BMI:: 33.3 kg/m2) | VE | 4.5 | 11 | 7.5 | 5 | 4.5 | 30 | 6.5 | |||||||||
| ME | 4 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 60 | 0.7 | ||||||||||
| Carnevale et al. 2017 [61] n = 30 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Sigma Aldrich)4 | Test meal (n.a.): (725 kcal, 53-54% CH, 28-30% F, 16-19% P) IG: with CG: without olive oil |
IFG (BMI:: 31.3 kg/m2)# | IG | 2 | 5 | 12 | 120 | 10 | n.a | ↑ GLP-1 secretion in IG compared with CG | ||||||
| CG | 2 | 3 | 6 | 120 | 4 | ||||||||||||
| Alyami et al. 2019 [66] n = 26 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Millipore)2 | Breakfast meal (15 min): SOP: Scottish oats porridge (220 kcal, 42 g CH, 4.4 g F) PMP: Pearl millet porridge (220 kcal, 44 g CH, 3 g F) |
NGT (BMI:: 23.4 kg/m2)# | SOP | 27 | 39 | 37 | 29 | 25 | 24 | 22 | 15 | 12 | 120 min: iAUC: 3670 (pmol/L∗min)# | ↔ | ||
| PMP | 29 | 35 | 37 | 29 | 24 | 21 | 22 | 30 | 8 | 120 min: iAUC: 3467 (pmol/L∗min)# | |||||||
| Schönknecht et al. 2020 [60] n = 60 RCT cross-over |
RIA1 | Breakfast challenge meal (20 min): WDHF: Western diet high-fat (1010 kcal, 37% CH, 53% F, 10% P) WDHC: Western diet high-CH (1013 kcal, 58% CH, 31% F, 10% P) MED: Mediterranean Diet (1012 kcal, 53% CH, 36% F, 10% P) |
OW (BMI:: 30.9 kg/m2)# | WDHF | 29 | 44 | 44 | 30 | 37 | 60 120 | 15 | 300 min: iAUC: 46 (pmol/L∗h)# | ↔ fasting/ postprandial values, iAUC | ||||
| WDHC | 30 | 44 | 46 | 41 | 37 | 120 | 16 | 300 min: iAUC: 44 (pmol/L∗h)# | |||||||||
| MED | 29 | 44 | 44 | 40 | 38 | 60 120 | 15 | 300 min: iAUC: 45 (pmol/L∗h)# | |||||||||
| Di Mauro et al. 2021 [68] n = 12 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Millipore)2 | Test meal (n.a.): MED: Mediterranean diet (665 kcal, 32% CH, 45% F, 23% P) HVF: High-fiber Vegetarian diet (704 kcal, 78% CH, 8% F, 15% P) |
T2DM (BMI:: 34.4 kg/m2) | MED | 13 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 15 | 30 | 5 | 210 min: AUC: 11359 (pg/mL∗min)# |
- ↑ AUC in MED compared with HFV ↔ iAUC (trend for ↑ in MED) |
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| HFV | 12 | 16 | 14 | 15 | 13 | 13 | 30 | 4 | 210 min: AUC: 9576 (pg/mL∗min)# |
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| Muangchan et al. 2021 [62] n = 6 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Millipore)2 | Test meal (n.a.): 100 g steamed rice with microwaved labeled egg + water IG: Riceberry rice (370 kcal, 75.5 g CH, 3.6 g F, 8.6 g P, 4.1 g fiber) CG: white rice (350 kcal, 79.4 g CH, 1.2 g F, 5.7 g P, 1.7 g fiber) |
NW (BMI:: 21.5 kg/m2) | IG | 38 | 39 | 37 | 35 | 43 | 21 | 120 | 5 | 180 min: iAUC: 7094 (pmol/L∗min) | - ↔ iAUC - trend for ↑ values in IG after 30 and 60 min |
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| CG | 32 | 31 | 28 | 27 | 33 | 38 | 180 | 6 | 180 min: iAUC: 5687 (pmol/L∗min) | ||||||||
| Dicks et al. 2022 [64] n = 22 RCT cross-over |
RIA1 | Test meal (15 min): IG: Enriched with 20 g powder of oyster mushroom (456 kcal, 67.9 g CH, 21.8 g F, 7.1 g P) CG: without enrichment (403 kcal, 52.5 g CH, 21.5 g F, 5.0 g P) |
IGT (BMI:: 31.3 kg/m2) | IG | 10 | 18 | 22 | 25 | 29 | 29 | 27 | 18 | 11 | 60 90 | 19 | 240 min: AUC: 5380 (pmol/L∗min) |
- ↑ concentration at 180 min in IG compared with CG - ↑ AUC in IG compared with CG |
| CG | 9 | 17 | 21 | 25 | 28 | 25 | 23 | 13 | 9 | 60 | 19 | 240 min: AUC: 4612 (pmol/L∗min) |
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| Bajka et al. 2023 [71] n = 20 RCT cross-over |
Electrochemilumin-escent multiplexed assay (Mesoscale Discovery)5 | Test meal (n.a.): bread with jam + water IG1: wheat bread with 30% cellular chickpea powder (360 kcal, 48.3 g CH, 5.6 g F, 17.7 g P, 6.2 g fiber) IG2: wheat bread with 60% cellular chickpea powder (435 kcal, 48.2 g CH, 8.8 g F, 27.2 g P, 10.7 g fiber) CG: wheat bread (310 kcal, 48.1 g CH, 3.3 g F, 12.9 g P, 2.6 g fiber) |
NW (BMI: ∼. 23.5 kg/m2) | IG1 | 0 | 15 | 29 | 25 | 29 | 25 | 20 | 10 | 6 | 30 60 | 29 | 120 min: iAUC: 2825 (pmol/L∗min)# | - ↑ iAUC and postprandial values in IGs compared with CG, especially during late postprandial period. IG2 lead to higher secretion than IG1 - ↔ maximum values, but peaks were reached ∼ 40 min later in IG2 |
| IG2 | 0 | 12 | 26 | 25 | 27 | 33 | 31 | 22 | 15 | 90 | 33 | 120 min: iAUC: 3051 (pmol/L∗min)# | |||||
| CG | 0 | 14 | 25 | 21 | 17 | 15 | 11 | 3 | 2 | 30 | 25 | 120 min: iAUC: 1966 (pmol/L∗min)# | |||||
| Nakamura et al. 2023 [67] n = 17 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Yanaihara Institute Inc.)6 | Test meal (n.a.): IG: 150 g cooked OIST rice (222 kcal, 45 g CH, 2.1 g F, 5.9 g P, 7.1 g resistant starch) CG: 150 g cooked white rice (210 kcal, 48.5 g CH, 0.5 g F, 3 g P, 1.4 g resistant starch) |
T2DM (BMI:: 25.9 kg/m2) | IG | 13 | 18 | 15 | 14 | 15 | 30 | 5 | 240 min: AUC: 3964 iAUC: 505 (pmol/L∗min)# |
↔ (i)AUC | ||||
| CG | 14 | 20 | 19 | 17 | 17 | 30 | 6 | 240 min: AUC: 3970 iAUC: 608 (pmol/L∗min)# |
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| Liquid (+ solid) meals | |||||||||||||||||
| Lamiquiz-Moneo et al. 2022 [59] n = 10 RCT cross-over |
Human Metabolic Hormone Magnetic Bead Panel (Merck)7 | Test drinks: Isoglucidic interventions (25 g CH) (n.a.) IG1: Regular alcohol-free beer (AFB) IG2: CH-modified AFB + isomaltulose (2.5 g/100 ml) + resistant maltodextrin (0.8 g/100 ml) IG3: CH-modified AFB + resistant maltodextrin (2.0 g/100 ml) CG: glucose (25 g CH) |
NW (BMI:: 23.4 kg/m2) | IG1 | 51 | 56 | 46 | 38 | 38 | 42 | 21 | 15 | 5 | 120 min: AUC: 17402 |
- ↑ AUC in all IGs compared with CG - ↔ iAUC - ↔ maximum increase over baseline value |
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| IG2 | 52 | 52 | 45 | 40 | 37 | 41 | 43 | 0 15 | 0 | 120 min: AUC: 16929 |
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| IG3 | 50 | 49 | 40 | 40 | 38 | 41 | 42 | 0 | -1 | 120 min: AUC: 16633 |
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| CG | 47 | 51 | 40 | 32 | 29 | 29 | 31 | 15 | 4 | 120 min: AUC: 13580 |
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| Lamiquiz-Moneo et al. 2022 [59] n = 20 RCT cross-over |
Human Metabolic Hormone Magnetic Bead Panel (Merck)7 | Test meals + drinks: Isoglucidic interventions (64.3 g CH) (n.a.) 50 g CH from white bread + 14.3 g CH from IG1: AFB IG2: CH-modified AFB + isomaltulose (2.5 g/ 100 mL) + resistant maltodextrin (0.8 g /100 mL) IG3: CH-modified AFB + resistant maltodextrin IG4: Extra white bread + water CG: + water (50 g CH) |
NW (BMI:: 24.4 kg/m2) | IG1 | 59 | 67 | 59 | 53 | 50 | 48 | 46 | 15 | 8 | 120 min: AUC: 20,813 |
- ↑ AUC in all IGs compared with CG - ↑ AUC in IG1 compared with IG2 - ↔ iAUC - ↔ maximum increase over baseline value |
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| IG2 | 57 | 58 | 55 | 53 | 48 | 44 | 42 | 15 | 1 | 120 min: AUC: 18,338 |
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| IG3 | 49 | 57 | 50 | 46 | 44 | 46 | 40 | 15 | 8 | 120 min: AUC: 19,560 |
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| IG4 | 50 | 60 | 59 | 53 | 50 | 42 | 39 | 15 | 10 | 120 min: AUC: 19,443 |
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| CG | 45 | 49 | 48 | 44 | 40 | 36 | 36 | 15 | 4 | 120 min: AUC: 16,286 |
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| Smith et al. 2023 [70] n = 18 RCT cross-over |
ELISA (Millipore)2 | Test meal (15 min): cereal + milk (387 kcal, 58% CH, 27% F, 15% P) IG: test meal + pre-meal whey protein drink (100 kcal, 15.6 g P) CG: test meal + pre-meal placebo shot (35 kcal, <.1 g P) |
T2DM (BMI:: 32.7 kg/m2) | IG | 47 | 58 | 62 | 57 | 55 | 51 | 45 | 38 | 35 | 30 | 15 | 240 min: iAUC: 14.6 (pmol/L∗min)# | ↑ iAUC and postprandial values in IG compared with CG |
| CG | 35 | 44 | 46 | 46 | 43 | 39 | 33 | 29 | 31 | 30 45 | 11 | 240 min: iAUC: 4.4 (pmol/L∗min)# | |||||
GLP-1 concentrations for selected time points of blood sampling, time-to-peak as well as Δ peak (peak concentration – fasting concentration) and —if available—AUC or iAUC values are listed. Under “results” only significant results are listed. Time point 0 describes fasting concentrations, time points >0 are reporting postprandial concentrations.
#original data, ↑ higher GLP-1 secretion in comparison to referred groups, ↓ lower GLP-1 secretion in comparison to referred groups, ↔ no differences of GLP-1 secretion between groups.
Supplemental Table 4 shows GLP-1 values for all measured time points. Details on GLP-1 assays as stated in the publications or according to manufacturer instructions:
Abbreviations: AFB, alcohol-free beer; approx., approximately; AUC, area under the curve; CH, carbohydrates; CG, control group; CV, coefficient of variation; F, fat; FRM, fat-rich meal; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; HFV, high-fiber vegetarian diet; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; IFG, impaired fasting glucose; IG, intervention group; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; LCH, large carbohydrate-rich meal; LOD, limit of detection; ME, meat meal; MED, Mediterranean diet; n.a., not available; NGT, normal glucose tolerance; NW, normal weight, OW, overweight; P, protein; PMP, pearl millet porridge; RIA, radioimmunoassay; RPCT, randomized placebo-controlled trial; SCH, small carbohydrate-rich meal; SOP, Scottish oats porridge; TTP, time-to-peak; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus; VE, vegan meal; WDHC, western diet high-carbohydrate; WDHF, western diet high-fat.
RIA [standardized assay (41)], polyclonal antiserum no. 89390, LOD: 1 pM, intra-assay CV: 6%, specificity: 100% for GLP-1 (7–36) 89% for GLP-1 (9-36);
ELISA (Merck Millipore), LOD: 1.5 pM, intra-assay CV: < 5%, inter-assay CV: < 12%;
Multiplex immunoanalysis xMAP technology, MILLIPEX MAP Human Gut Hormone Panel (Millipore), sensitivity: 13.7 pg/mL;
ELISA (Arbor Assay, Sigma Aldrich), sensitivity: 1.5 pM, intra-assay CV: 1%–2%, inter-assay CV: < 12%;
Electrochemilumin-escent multiplexed assay (Mesoscale Discovery), n.a.;
ELISA (YK 161, Yanaihara Institute Inc.), sensitivity: 1.5 pM, intra-assay CV: 2%–5.4%, inter-assay CV: 2.2%–3.8%, cross-reactivity: 100% for GLP-1 (7–36) and for GLP-1 (9–36);
Human Metabolic Hormone Magnetic Bead Panel MILLIPLEX MAP Kits (Cat. # HMHEMAG-34K, Merck), sensitivity: 7.3 pg/mL, intra-assay CV: < 10%, inter-assay CV: < 15%.