Table 3.

Extracted structural elements with corresponding interventions and measured effect.

Stage	Intervention	Variable	Effect	IVT	No. participants	Ref.
Development and testing	Use the PhysX commodity physics engine, which aimed to create a two-handed interactive simulation system for medical training in suturing techniques	Performance	Positive	VR	3	Choi et al. (26)
Evaluation	Discussed is the application of haptic feedback to virtual reality video game training programs for emergency responders.	Effectiveness	Increased	VR	No specified	Gao et al. (27)
Development and testing	Development and implementation of a VR simulator designed to enhance ACLS training for healthcare providers.	Performance	Increased	VR	No specified	Vankipuram et al. (28)
Development and testing	Using a VR educational tool to visualize and interact with the anatomy of the human cranium for educational and surgical planning.	Engagement	Increased	VR	No specified	Izard et al. (29)
Evaluated	Using are the two systems developed for medical training: An interactive 360 content system that presents medical procedures in a virtual environment. An interactive virtual reality medical simulator that aids in understanding and performing medical procedures.	Performance	Increased	VR	16	Izard et al. (30)
Evaluated	Using are the two systems developed for medical training: An interactive 360 content system that presents medical procedures in a virtual environment. An interactive virtual reality medical simulator that aids in understanding and performing medical procedures.	Performance	Increased	VR	26	Yovanoff et al. (31)
Results	VR-based serious gaming module for Basic Life Support (BLS) training, combined with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to monitor cerebral oxygenation levels.	Performance and Engagement	Increased	VR	22	Aksoy et al. (32)
Evaluated	Use of an immersive virtual reality consultation scenario to train doctors to recognize safeguarding cues related to child protection.	Performance	Positive	VR	63	Drewett et al. (33)
Results	Use of virtual reality (VR) simulation for teaching orthopedic surgery residents	Performance	Increased	VR	14	Hooper et al. (34)
Results	Development and use of a ray-tracing-based ultrasound simulation framework that incorporates real-time deformation and patient-specific scatterer maps to enhance the realism of ultrasound simulations.	Performance	Increased	VR	12	Starkov et al. (35)
Evaluated	Implementation of an online VR training platform (“Body Interact”) for medical students when in-hospital training was not possible due to the pandemic.	Engagement	Positive	VR	122	De Ponti et al. (36)
Evaluated	Use of VR-SBL in two case studies at the Universidad Europea de Madrid. One involved first aid training in a simulated traffic emergency, and the other involved simulating accidents in a virtual reality laboratory setting.	Performance and engagement	Increased	VR	No specified	Mariscal et al. (37)
Results	Use of an optical see-through augmented reality (OST-AR) training tool for central venous catheterization (CVC).	Performance	Positive	AR	18	Mendes et al. (38)
Results	The TACTICS VR training platform, which was developed as an evidence-based application to address the gap in stroke workflow optimization training.	Performance	Positive	VR	7	Hood et al. (39)
Evaluated	Using a Microsoft HoloLens-based AR system for surgical training and telementoring. This system uses 3D tracking and visualization to guide surgical procedures	Performance	Increased	AR	No specified	Liu et al. (40)
Evaluated	Training participants using different methods: VR-based instructions, video-based instructions, and paper-based instructions for setting up a surgical robot.	Performance and engagement	Positive	VR	30	Mehrfard et al. (41)
Evaluated	Use of an AI-based virtual reality (VR) trainer designed to simulate operating room (OR) fire scenarios as part of the training curriculum.	Performance	Increased	VR	53	Qi et al. (42)
Results	Use of AR step-by-step guide developed for the Microsoft HoloLens 2 for ECMO cannulation training, as opposed to conventional training methods.	Performance and Engagement	Increased	VR	21	Wolf et al. (43)
Evaluated	Use of virtual reality (VR) in medical education, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic where traditional education methods were disrupted.	No evaluated	Positive	VR	No specified	Syed Abdul et al. (44)
Results	The application of extended reality within the metaverse for health communication, aiming to enhance health behavior change and address challenges in health communication.	No evaluated	Positive	VR	No specified	Piechata et al. (45)
Evaluated	Use of a desktop virtual reality application designed to teach undergraduate nursing students the ISBAR approach for preoperative assessment.	Performance and Engagement	Increased	VR	9	Andreasen et al. (46)
Evaluated	AEducaAR tool, which is an AR-based learning tool combining AR technology with 3D printing to teach human anatomy.	Performance	Neutral	AR	62	Cercenelli et al. (47)
Results	Creation and use of a scenario-based, mixed-reality (MR) platform for training non-technical skills (NTS) of battlefield first aid (BFA).	Performance	Increased	AR/VR	20	Du et al. (48)
Development and testing	The proposal and development of the metaverse for healthcare, termed MeTAI, which encompasses applications such as virtual comparative scanning, raw data sharing, augmented regulatory science, and metaversed medical intervention	No evaluated	No evaluated	AR/VR	No specified	Wang et al. (49)
Results	Use of an augmented reality (AR)-based self-learning system for setting up mechanical ventilators as compared to a manual-based instruction system.	Performance	Increased	AR	31	Heo et al. (50)
Evaluated	Use of a semi-autonomous virtual reality (VR) trauma simulator for medical education	Engagement	Increased	AR/VR	17	Lombardo et al. (51)
Results	Application of MR technology to create 3D holographic models for use in orthopedic surgery planning and navigation.	Performance	Positive	AR/VR	No specified	Lu et al. (52)
Development and testing	Use of a VR application for training medical students in COVID-19 swab testing and proper handling of personal protective equipment (PPE)	Performance	Positive	VR	29	Zikas et al. (53)