Table 2.
Effects of bodybuilding and hormone abuses on metabolic markers
| BBINS (n = 15) |
BBGH (n = 12) |
BBAAS (n = 13) |
BBNU (n = 52) |
CTRL (n = 45) |
One-way ANOVA p (η2) |
Effect Size* | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| INSULIN SENSITIVITY | |||||||
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 90 ± 2 | 87 ± 4 | 89 ± 2 | 93 ± 1 | 91 ± 1 | 0.15 | - |
| Fasting insulin (µU/mol) | 7.2 ± 1.1 | 11.0 ± 4.9 | 7.1 ± 1.0 | 6.3 ± 0.4 | 8.3 ± 0.9 | 0.22 | - |
| HOMA index | 1.61 ± 0.25 | 2.38 ± 1.03 | 1.59 ± 0.24 | 1.46 ± 0.11 | 1.90 ± 0.22 | 0.30 | - |
| PLASMA LIPID PATTERN | |||||||
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 168.6 ± 10.2b | 139.7 ± 14.4a,c,d | 179.3 ± 13.1b | 173.7 ± 4.8b,e | 157.2 ± 4.6d | 0.02 | 0.1 (-0.4–0.6) |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 99.8 ± 18.8 | 79.2 ± 13.0 | 88.7 ± 16.9 | 101.5 ± 14.5 | 75.6 ± 6.3 | 0.52 | - |
| HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | 31.3 ± 3.7c,d,e | 27.1 ± 3.3c,d,e | 37.8 ± 2.5a,b,d | 48.0 ± 1.5a,b,c,e | 42.0 ± 1.2a,b,d | < 0.001 | -0.9 (-1.5 - -0.4) |
| LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 117.3 ± 9.5 | 96.8 ± 11.5 | 123.8 ± 13.8 | 105.4 ± 3.9 | 100.0 ± 3.6 | 0.08 | 0.4 (-0.1–0.9) |
| HDL-to-non-HDL cholesterol ratio | 0.25 ± 0.04d,e | 0.28 ± 0.04d,e | 0.30 ± 0.04d | 0.42 ± 0.02a,b,c | 0.39 ± 0.03a,b | 0.001 | -0.8 (-1.3 - -0.2) |
| OTHER PLASMA MARKERS | |||||||
| CETP (µg/mL) | 2.76 ± 0.10c | 2.57 ± 0.25c,d,e | 3.45 ± 0.22a,b | 3.08 ± 0.11b | 3.16 ± 0.10b | 0.02 | -0.4 (-1.0–0.09) |
| Leptin (ng/mL) | 1.22 ± 0.46e | 0.61 ± 0.18e | 0.63 ± 0.18e | 0.86 ± 0.12e | 2.69 ± 0.51a,b,c,d | < 0.001 | -0.1 (-0.7–0.4) |
| Leptin/kg of fat (ng/mL*kg) | 0.09 ± 0.03e | 0.06 ± 0.02e | 0.05 ± 0.01e | 0.08 ± 0.01e | 0.18 ± 0.02a,b,c,d | < 0.001 | -0.2 (-0.8–0.3) |
| Creatinine (mg/dL) | 1.22 ± 0.04 | 1.14 ± 0.05 | 1.17 ± 0.04 | 1.17 ± 0.02 | 1.18 ± 0.02 | 0.70 | - |
| ALT (I.U./L) | 66.7 ± 10.0b,c,d,e | 46.8 ± 7.1a,c,d,e | 31.2 ± 3.3a,b,e | 26.5 ± 1.7a,b,e | 22.0 ± 1.3a,b,c,d | < 0.001 | 2.1 (1.5–2.7) |
| AST (I.U./L) | 53.9 ± 11.0c,d,e | 54.6 ± 10.0c,d,e | 29.9 ± 3.9a,b | 28.2 ± 1.4a,b,e | 23.2 ± 1.2a,b,d | < 0.001 | 1.2 (0.6–1.8) |
| ALT/AST | 1.41 ± 0.14b,c,d,e | 0.96 ± 0.09a | 1.10 ± 0.11a | 0.97 ± 0.04a | 0.97 ± 0.04a | 0.001 | 1.2 (0.6–1.8) |
| CK (U./L.) | 951 ± 343c,d,e | 966 ± 257c,d,e | 356 ± 91a,b,e | 302 ± 40a,b,e | 180 ± 31a,b,c,d | < 0.001 | 1.4 (0.6–2.1) |
| hs-CRP (mg/dL) | 0.16 ± 0.06d,e | 0.16 ± 0.07 | 0.14 ± 0.05d | 0.07 ± 0.02a,c | 0.08 ± 0.01a | 0.01 | 0.5 (-0.03–1.0) |
Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. BBINS, bodybuilders abusing insulin alone (n = 1) or in association with anabolic androgenic steroids (n = 3) or with anabolic androgenic steroids and growth hormone (n = 11); BBGH, bodybuilders abusing growth hormone alone (n = 1) or in association with anabolic androgenic steroids (n = 11); BBAAS, bodybuilders abusing only anabolic androgenic steroids; BBNU, bodybuilders not using hormones; CTRL, non-bodybuilders
Statistical analysis was performed using One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc analysis. a, significant difference from BBINS (P < 0.05). b, significant difference from BBGH (P < 0.05). c, significant difference from BBAAS (P < 0.05). d, significant difference from BBNU (P < 0.05). e, significant difference from CTRL (P < 0.05)
*Effect size is calculated to quantify differences between BBINS group versus all the other groups. If post-hoc analysis showed a difference between BBINS and more than one group, both pooled average and standard deviation of these groups were considered to assess effect size. < 0.2 low probability; 0.2–0.8 medium probability; > 0.8 strong probability. Effect size is expressed as point estimate and confidence intervals (95%)
HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment index of insulin resistance. CETP, Cholesteryl ester transfer protein. ALT, alanine transaminase. AST, aspartate transaminase. CK, creatine kinase hs-CRP, high-sensitive C-reactive protein