Table 1.
Studies estimating trajectory classes of loneliness among children and young people
| Study | Sample | Design | Trajectory classesa | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harris et al. (2013) | N = 209. Aged 8 years at T1. | Data collected three times, at 18-month intervals. | Two-class solution: Relatively High, Reducing (48%), and Low Stable (52%). | At 11 years, the Relatively High, Reducing group had higher levels of depressive symptoms, poorer general health, and poorer sleep. |
| Benner (2011) | N = 640. Grade 9 at T1. | Data collected twice in Grades 9 and 10. | Three-class solution: Consistently Low (78%), High (11%), and Low but Increasing (11%). | High and Low Increasing classes had poorer academic outcomes than the Low class. |
| Jobe-Shields et al. (2011) | N = 170. Aged 9 years at T1. | Data collected annually at ages 9, 10 and 11 years. | Three-class solution: Stable Low (65%), Increasers (23%), and Decreasers (12%). | Stable Low had generally positive peer functioning; Increasers at risk group for developing later internalising symptomatology; and Decreasers had mixed pattern of peer functioning at age 9 years, but were indistinguishable from the Stable Low group subsequently. |
| Verboon et al. (2022) | N-130. 9 years. | Data collected at ages 9, 13, 16, and 21. | Three-class solution: Stable-Low (51–61%), Low-Increasing (21–32%), and High-Declining (7–22%). NB. Ranges are reported here as three separate clustering techniques were employed. | |
| Qualter et al. (2013) | N = 586. Age 7 years at T1. | Data collected biannually for ten years. | Four-class solution: Low Stable (37%), Moderate Decliners (23%), Moderate Increasers (18%), Relatively High Stable (22%). | Both the High Stable and Moderate Increasing trajectories were associated with depressive symptoms at age 17 years. |
| Ladd & Ettekal (2013) | N = 478. Age 12 years at T1. | Data collected annually for six years. | Five-class solution: Stable Non-Lonely (19%), Stable Low (20%), Stable High (Chronic) (14%), Moderate Decliners (42%), and Steep Decliners (6%). | Stable High had the highest level of symptoms of depression. |
| Schinka et al. (2013) | N = 832. Age 9 years at T1. | Loneliness assessed at ages 9, 11, and 15 years. | Five-class solution: Stable Low (49%), Moderate Increasing (32%), High Increasing (5%), Decreasing (11%), and Chronic (4%). | Depression assessed at 7 years old predicted greater likelihood of being in: High Increasing/Chronic groups than Stable Low. All groups reported higher levels of depression at age 15 when compared to the Stable. |
| Vanhalst et al. (2013) | N = 389. Mage at T1 = 15.22 years. | Cohort-sequential (two-groups, ages 15 and 16 at T1). Data collected annually for 5 years. | Five-class solution: Chronically High (3%), High Decreasing (6%), Moderate Decreasing (8%), Low Increasing (17%), and Stable Low (65%). | Those who never experienced loneliness were best adjusted (lowest stress, least depressive symptoms, highest self-esteem), whereas the Chronically High group had the most problems (highest stress, most depressive symptoms, lowest self-esteem). |
| Vanhalst et al. (2015, 2018) | N = 730. Mage at T1 = 15.43 years. | Data collected annually for 4 years. | Five-class solution: Chronic (3%), Low Stable (47%), Moderate-Stable (27%), Moderate-Increasing (14%), High Decreasing (9%). | Cognitive and emotional responses of the Chronic group seem to perpetuate, rather than reduce, loneliness (e.g., hypersensitivity to social exclusion and hyposensitivity to social inclusion). |
aTrajectory labels used here are those used by the original authors