Table 2.

Consequences of CIN and their impact on tumor biology

CIN indicators	Consequence of CIN	Impact on tumor biology	Ref
Lagging chromosome	Formation of micronucleus, aneuploid, or polyploid cells	DNA damage, chromothripsis, proteotoxic stress, metabolic alteration	^{70,78,115,329}
Chromosome bridge	Formation of micronucleus, aneuploid, or polyploid cells	DNA damage, chromothripsis, proteotoxic stress, metabolic alteration	^78,115,329
Micronucleus	DNA damage, chromothripsis	Increased heterogeneity, induction of metastasis through cGAS-STING pathway, tumor immune regulation	^{78,115,122–133}
Aneuploidy	Changes in chromosome number or structure	Cell cycle arrest, senescence, metastasis, tumor immune regulation, drug resistance	^{271,333–336,361}
Polyploidy	Changes in chromosome number	Cell cycle arrest, senescence, metastasis, tumor immune regulation, drug resistance	^{230,252,271,342}